3 Global Security

(1) Regional Security

In the international community, a historical shift in the power balance, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region, is occurring. In light of the numerous security challenges confronting this region, there is a need for Japan to cooperate with its allies and like-minded countries and others. In particular, it is more important than ever to further strengthen the deterrence and response capabilities of the Japan-U.S Alliance. There is also a need for Japan to fundamentally reinforce its own defense capabilities. At the same time, by actively strengthening bilateral and multilateral security cooperation with each country, Japan has been making efforts to realize a desirable regional security environment for Japan.

ASEAN is located in a geopolitically strategic position and faces Japan's important sea lane. A stable and prosperous ASEAN region is crucial to the stability and prosperity not only of the East Asia region but also of the international community. The Japan-Philippines Foreign and Defense Ministerial Meeting (“2+2”) was launched in April. At the inaugural meeting, the two sides concurred on starting to consider frameworks to facilitate reciprocal visits as well as reciprocal provision of supplies and services in order to further enhance and facilitate cooperation such as exercises between Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and the Armed Forces of the Philippines. In May, Japan and Thailand signed an Agreement Concerning the Transfer of Defense Equipment and Technology, accelerating consultations between the two countries toward the realization of concrete defense equipment transfer. In June, Japan and Singapore concurred to commence negotiations on the Agreement concerning the Transfer of Defense Equipment and Technology. To ensure the rule of law in the seas, Japan also provides continuous support to the Philippines, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, and other countries to improve the law enforcement capabilities of their coast guard authorities. “SAPPHIRE” is an initiative in which the Japan Coast Guard and the U.S. Coast Guard collaborate to conduct training for third-country agencies, and the first program was conducted in May for the Philippine Coast Guard.

Japan and India held three summit meetings─during Prime Minister Kishida's visit to India in March, at the Japan-Australia-India-U.S. (Quad) Leaders' Meeting in May, and at the state funeral for the late Prime Minister ABE Shinzo. At these talks, Japan and India affirmed that they would work to further develop the “Japan-India Special Strategic and Global Partnership.” The second Japan-India 2+2 Foreign and Defence Ministerial Meeting was held in September, where the Ministers confirmed the substantial expansion of bilateral security and defense cooperation and concurred on continuing to conduct bilateral and multilateral exercises in a multilayered manner going forward. At the working-level, the Fourth Japan-India Cyber Dialogue was convened in June, and both sides exchanged views on their respective cyber policies and cooperation in the cyber domain, among other topics.

At the Japan-Australia Leaders Video Teleconference Meeting in January, Japan and Australia signed the Japan-Australia Reciprocal Access Agreement (RAA), aimed at facilitating cooperation such as joint exercises, disaster relief activities, and other forms of cooperation between the JSDF and Australian Defense Force. At the Japan-Australia Leaders' Meeting held in October during Prime Minister Kishida's visit to Perth, the two leaders concurred on the recognition that the “Special Strategic Partnership” between the two countries has been elevated to a new level. They also signed a new Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation. The two leaders concurred that this Declaration is a compass that will guide the direction of Japan-Australia security and defense cooperation for the next 10 years, and that the two countries will further strengthen security and defense cooperation in accordance with the Declaration, including cooperation between the JSDF and Australian Defense Force. The tenth Japan-Australia Foreign and Defence Ministerial Consultations (“2+2”) was held in December, where the four Ministers followed up promptly on the outcomes of the Leader's Meeting held in October. They affirmed that they would identify the bilateral cooperation that should be implemented as soon as possible based on the aforementioned Declaration, and then work together on this identified cooperation toward realizing Japan-Australia cooperation and Japan-U.S.-Australia cooperation in the field of security going forward, alongside promoting multilayered cooperation between like-minded countries. With regard to ship-to-ship transfers,³ the Australian Defence Force carried out surveillance operations by their naval vessels in late June and late October and by their aircraft at the end of February.

In relation to the UK, which is Japan's “Global strategic partner,” at the Japan-UK Summit Meeting held in May, the two countries affirmed their agreement in principle to the Japan-UK Reciprocal Access Agreement, which facilitates cooperation in areas such as joint exercises between the JSDF and the UK Armed Forces, disaster relief activities, and other forms of cooperation. Thereafter, at the Japan-UK Summit Meeting in January 2023, Prime Minister Kishida and Prime Minister Rishi Sunak signed the Agreement, and the two leaders concurred in further deepening security and defense cooperation. In December 2022, Japan, the UK, and Italy decided and announced the joint development of a next-generation fighter jet under the Global Combat Air Program (GCAP). The three countries shared the view that they expect this cooperation to be a foundation for global safety, stability, and prosperity over the coming decades. With regard to ship-to-ship transfers, naval vessels from the UK Armed Forces engaged in surveillance operations in mid-January, early February, late February, and late September.

With France, which Japan shares an “Exceptional Partnership” with, the Sixth Japan-France Foreign and Defense Ministers' Meeting (“2+2”) was convened in January. The Ministers shared the view of raising cooperation in the Indo-Pacific to a higher level and further promoting cooperation to address regional situations and challenges facing the international community. France dispatched its Navy frigate Vendémiaire in March and the Falcon 200 Maritime Patrol Aircraft (MPA) in October to the waters around Japan, including the East China Sea to conduct surveillance operations against illicit maritime activities, including ship-to-ship transfers with North Korean-flagged vessels. At the Japan-France Summit Meeting held in January 2023, the two leaders welcomed the progress in substantive cooperation, including reciprocal visits of assets and joint exercises between Japan and France, and concurred in deepening cooperation between the two countries.

In relation to Germany, the Chief of the German Air Force and German Air Force aircraft visited Japan in September and held the first Japan-German joint exercises in Japan. In addition, the Japan-Germany Foreign and Defense Ministers' Meeting (“2+2”) was held in November, where the Ministers concurred on promoting concrete measures to deepen Japan-Germany security and defense cooperation, including economic security.

At the Japan-Italy Summit Meeting held in May, Japan welcomed the progress in Japan-Italy security cooperation, including joint exercises in the Gulf of Aden by the Japan Maritime SDF and the Italian Navy, and the training of Japan Air SDF pilots by the Italian Air Force, and valued the formulation of the documents on the Indo-Pacific published by Italy, based on the EU Strategy for Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific. At the Japan-Italy Summit Meeting held in January 2023, the two leaders concurred in upgrading the relationship between the two countries to that of “strategic partners,” and shared the view to establish consultations between the respective foreign and defense authorities as well as to further promote cooperation in the field of security.

In March, the EU released “The Strategic Compass of the European Union,” setting out its strategic guidelines for the next 10 years. In this document, the EU clearly stated that it aims to further develop partnerships with like-minded countries and strategic partners, including Japan. At the Japan-EU Summit convened in May, both sides concurred on strengthening cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, and on aiming to expand substantive cooperation in the fields of cyber security, addressing disinformation, maritime security, and crisis management. In relation to NATO, Prime Minister Kishida held a meeting with Secretary General of NATO Jens Stoltenberg in June during the NATO Summit, which was attended for the first time by a Prime Minister of Japan. At the meeting, the two sides concurred on the importance of deepening Japan-NATO cooperation more than ever before, based on the recognition that the security of Europe and of the Indo-Pacific is inseparable.

At the Japan-Canada Foreign Ministers' Meeting held in October, the two Ministers announced the “Japan-Canada Action Plan for contributing to a free and open Indo-Pacific region”, and concurred on further advancing concrete and robust cooperation and coordination between the two countries going forward. This Action Plan includes cooperation in response to violations of the UN Security Council resolutions on North Korea, such as illegal ship-to-ship transfers, which Canada has been proactively addressing since 2018, efforts to make the greatest use of the Japan-Canada Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA), and cooperation on energy security, among other matters. The fifth Japan-Canada Foreign and Defense Vice Ministerial Meeting (“2+2”) was held in March and the 12th Japan-Canada Political-Military (PM) Dialogue in December. With regard to joint exercises with the Canadian Armed Forces, the Japan-Canada joint exercise “KAEDEX,” which has been conducted every year since 2017, was held in September. A number of multilateral joint exercises were also conducted. As for responding to illegal ship-to-ship transfers, a naval vessel of the Canadian Armed Forces conducted surveillance operations from mid-September, while aerial surveillance by aircraft was carried out for about one month from late April and about one month from early October.

There are various issues of concern in relation to China, such as its intrusion into Japan's territorial waters, based on its own assertions in the areas around the Senkaku Islands, an inherent territory of Japan, the rapid strengthening of its military power without transparency, and increasing activities by its military in the waters and air spaces surrounding Japan. Japan will continue to make use of opportunities at high-level dialogues, including summit meetings and foreign ministers' meetings, to firmly assert its position and resolve the issues of concern one by one, as well as to take a calm and resolute approach while strongly requesting for China's concrete action. As China's military trends are a matter of serious concern for Japan, Japan is working on communicating its policies through security dialogues such as the Japan-China Security Dialogue, as well as efforts to build multilayered channels for exchanges. At the same time, Japan is communicating its concerns and urging China to improve transparency in relation to its defense policies and military power, as well as to take more concrete actions to contribute to the security environment and to the region, including Japan. The Maritime and Aerial Communication Mechanism between the defense authorities of Japan and China that commenced operation in 2018 is aimed at promoting mutual understanding and confidence and avoiding unexpected collision, and the leaders of Japan and China concurred on the early launch of a hotline under this Mechanism at the Japan-China Summit Meeting held in November.

In relation to the Republic of Korea (ROK), based on the recognition of the importance of Japan-ROK as well as Japan-U.S.-ROK cooperation toward the denuclearization of North Korea, the two countries held a Japan-ROK Summit Meeting (November), Japan-ROK Leaders' Meeting (September), Japan-ROK Summit Telephone Meeting (October), Japan-ROK Foreign Ministers' Meetings (February, July, August, September,), Japan-ROK Foreign Ministers' Telephone Meeting (February, March, May, October, November (2 times)), Japan-U.S.-ROK Summit Meeting (June, November), and Japan-U.S.-ROK Foreign Ministers' Meeting (February, July, September), where the two sides affirmed that Japan and the ROK, as well as Japan, the U.S. and the ROK, would work closely together. In particular, at the Japan-ROK Summit Meeting held for the first time in three years, the two leaders affirmed cooperation on the issue concerning North Korea, and toward the realization of a free and open Indo-Pacific. Based on the Japan-U.S.-ROK Defense Ministers' Meeting held in June, the three countries conducted joint exercises (August, September, October), in order to further promote trilateral cooperation to respond to regional security issues.

Peace and stability in the Middle East region is vital to the peace and prosperity of the international community including Japan. The Middle East is one of the world's key energy suppliers, and approximately 90% of Japan's crude oil imports rely on the region. It is, therefore, extremely important to ensure the safety of navigation of Japan-related vessels in this region. As Japan's independent efforts toward ensuring peace and stability in the Middle East region and the safety of Japan-related vessels, the Government of Japan has made a Cabinet decision in December 2019 on (1) making further diplomatic efforts toward easing tensions and stabilizing the situation in the Middle East, (2) taking thorough measures for ensuring safety of navigation including robust information sharing with relevant stakeholders, and (3) utilizing vessels and aircraft of the SDF for strengthening its information gathering posture. Japan has continued to conduct information gathering activities using SDF vessels and aircraft in the waters of the Middle East since January 2020.

In addition, Japan has actively participated in and contributed to multilateral frameworks in the region, including the East Asia Summit (EAS), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting-Plus (ADMM-Plus), in order to strengthen security cooperation in the region. The ARF is an important framework for dialogue on security in which various entities participate including North Korea and the EU, with the aims of improving the security environment of the Indo-Pacific region through dialogues and cooperation on political and security issues. It is also an important forum that focuses on confidence-building through various initiatives. At the 29th ARF Ministerial Meeting held in August, participating ministers candidly exchanged views mainly on regional and international affairs, including issues concerning Ukraine, Taiwan, the East and South China Seas, North Korea, and Myanmar, as well as the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Japan is also making a pro-active contribution through, for example, serving as a co-chair of all the Inter-Sessional Meetings (ISM) on Maritime Security, Non-Proliferation and Disarmament, Counter-Terrorism and Transnational Crime, Disaster Relief, and ICTs Security.

Furthermore, in addition to government-to-government dialogues (track 1), Japan utilizes frameworks where participants from both public and private sectors exchange opinions and explain their security policies (track 1.5), as well as other means, as part of its efforts to promote other countries' understanding of Japan's security policies, and to facilitate cooperation and confidence-building in the region.

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• 3 In this context, “ship-to-ship transfers” refers to the transfers to or from North Korea-flagged vessels of any goods or items at sea, which UN Security Council resolution 2375 (adopted in September 2017) prohibits the UN member states from facilitating or engaging in.

(2) Economic Security

A Trends Surrounding Economic Security

In recent years, various challenges have been surfacing in fields that cut across national security and the economy. The scope of the national security domain is expanding rapidly. Various risks are emerging, such as the risk of stolen or leaked advanced civilian technologies being converted to military use in other countries, the risk of suppliers influenced by foreign governments obstructing the stable operation of critical infrastructure such as telecommunications, the risk of disruptions to the supply of critical goods due to dependence on other countries, and the risk of being subjected to economic coercion by some countries seeking to achieve political objectives by using their advantages in the supply chain or their purchasing power in the market as leverage.

In light of the emergence of various threats through economic means, securing Japan's national interests such as peace, security, and economic prosperity by carrying out economic measures, in other words economic security, is becoming increasingly important. In view of this, Japan is accelerating efforts, such as the enactment of the Economic Security Promotion Act in May. This Act is centered around four pillars: enhancing the resilience of supply chains, ensuring security and reliability of essential infrastructure, public-private cooperation regarding specified critical technologies, and non-disclosure of selected patent applications.

B Recent Initiatives by Other Countries

Other countries have also been rapidly advancing initiatives to promote economic security in recent years.

The U.S. has taken the lead in adopting and implementing regulations and promotion measures from the perspectives of maintaining its technological advantage and addressing supply chain risks, as evidenced by its National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, among others. As a part of these efforts, the U.S. enacted the CHIPS and Science Act in August 2022, which provides for direct financial assistance and tax credits to companies that invest in semiconductor production in the U.S. In October, the U.S. released its National Security Strategy, which outlines the U.S. policy to strengthen its industry and innovation base through expanding investments in key areas and securing the safety of critical infrastructure and supply chains, with the goal to maintain and fortify its competitive edge. Moreover, it also set out the U.S. strategy to continue strengthening its resilience against malicious activities in cyberspace, and its responses to counter intellectual property theft, forced technology transfer, and other attempts to harm its technological superiority. In November, the Federal Communications Commission issued an administrative order to prohibit the authorization of imports to and sale within the U.S., of communications equipment that could potentially pose a security threat to the country.

The EU promotes strengthening resilience against the risk of supply disruptions to critical technologies and materials, based on the concept of “strategic autonomy.” In February, the European Commission published the European Chips Act, which sets out the targets of establishing a supply chain within the region that covers the research and development, design, through to the production of advanced semiconductors, and of growing the EU's global market share of next-generation semiconductors produced within the region to 20% or more by 2030. In September, the European Commission announced that it would put forward a bill on the European Critical Raw Materials Act and establish a new European Sovereignty Fund to strategically enhance the production capabilities, storage, and overall support for critical raw materials within the region. Furthermore, in the same month, the European Commission proposed a Single Market Emergency Instrument (SMEI), drawing from the lessons of the energy crisis triggered by Russia's aggression against Ukraine. The SMEI is aimed at securing goods with strategic importance and guaranteeing their free movement within the EU's single market, in preparation for similar crises that may occur in the future. In addition, the Foreign Subsidies Regulation (FSR) entered into force in January 2023. Under the FSR, the European Commission may conduct investigations in cases of suspected market distortive effects caused by foreign subsidies, in relation to activities by companies receiving subsidies from non-EU governments and operating within the EU market. Besides this, in December 2021, the European Commission proposed an Anti-Coercion Instrument (ACI) to set out procedures and standards for initiating countermeasures as a means of “last resort” against economic coercion to EU Member States by third countries, in case consultations or other measures fail. Deliberations on the ACI are currently ongoing (as of January 2023).

Australia has, thus far, positioned the securing of national resilience and the protection of assets and infrastructure as its national interests, and advanced concrete measures to that end. These include the formulation of the International Cyber and Critical Tech Engagement Strategy (April 2021), which sets out the policy for promoting the identification of technologies that should be protected, the tightening of investment screening systems for land and businesses related to sensitive national security (January 2021), and the establishment of the Next Generation Technologies Fund, which invests approximately 60 billion yen over 10 years from 2016 into game-changing technologies on national security. In December 2021, the Security Legislation Amendment (Critical Infrastructure Protection) Act 2022 came into effect. This law is aimed at strengthening the resilience of critical infrastructure, and sets out the expansion of critical infrastructure departments and their responsibilities, as well as government support and intervention measures in the event of cyber security incidents.

In October, Canada announced the policy of prohibiting, in principle, significant transactions by foreign state-owned enterprises in Canada's critical minerals sector, as a part of its efforts to strengthen the resilience of supply chains for batteries, electric vehicles, critical minerals, and others. In December, an act to amend the Investment Canada Act, including provisions on setting new application requirements when investing in prescribed business sectors, was submitted to the Parliament.

C Diplomatic Efforts Toward the Promotion of Economic Security

Diplomacy plays a significant role in promoting economic security. Japan, in cooperation with the international community, engages in diplomacy in areas such as further strengthening cooperation with its ally and like-minded countries, responding to issues based on existing rules, and rule-making to address new issues.

In relation to further strengthening cooperation with its ally and like-minded countries, Japan leverages cooperation under the Japan-U.S. Economic Policy Consultative Committee Meeting (the Economic “2+2”) or Japan-Australia-India-U.S. (Quad) and frameworks such as the G7 and others, as well as strengthens cooperation with Southeast Asian countries, to expand and deepen cooperation with like-minded countries with a view to developing common recognition and coordinating policies.

In responding to issues based on existing rules, Japan has worked on correcting unfair trade policies and practices of others in cooperation with like-minded countries from the perspective of consistency with existing rules including WTO agreements, EPAs, investment-related treaties, and others. Furthermore, Japan gathers and analyzes information on economic security measures and trade rules, drawing on the efforts of like-minded countries, and works to ensure that Japan's economic security policy needs are appropriately met.

With regard to rule-making related to new issues, existing international agreements are not adequate for addressing areas such as data, critical and emerging technologies, including the fifth-generation mobile communications systems (5G), economic coercion, and others. In fields where there is a need to further develop international rules, Japan continues to play a leading part in international debates in cooperation with like-minded countries.

D Cooperation with its Ally and Like-minded Countries

Japan made particularly significant progress in cooperation with its ally and like-minded countries in 2022. Firstly, during the Economic “2+2” in July, Japan and the U.S. engaged in discussions on responses to challenges to sovereignty of each country and the international order posed by the use of economic influence, such as economic coercion and unfair and opaque lending practices. During the talks, the Japanese side proposed deepening discussions on economic coercion leading up to the 2023 G7 Hiroshima Summit. At the meeting, the two sides concurred on promoting cooperation between Japan and the U.S., as well as with like-minded countries, in areas such as expanding the share of Open RAN⁴ in the global 5G market and the diffusion of related infrastructure. They also concurred on the need to build more resilient supply chains based on a rules-based multilateral free trade system and in cooperation with like-minded countries, In addition, the Ministers also exchanged views on bilateral cooperation on strengthening supply chain resilience in areas such as batteries and critical minerals.

At the Japan-Australia-India-U.S. (Quad) Leaders' Meeting convened in May in Tokyo, in the field of critical and emerging technologies, the leaders concurred on continuing to cooperate in areas such as advancing interoperability and security of 5G, leveraging their complementary strengths across the supply chains, including semiconductors, strengthening cooperation at international standardization organizations such as the Telecommunication Standardization Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and strengthening horizon scanning cooperation. In addition to announcing the launch of the Common Statement of Principles on Critical Technology Supply Chains, the relevant agencies of the four countries also signed a new Memorandum of Cooperation on 5G Supplier Diversification and Open RAN.

Cooperation in economic security was also affirmed at the G7 Foreign Ministers' Meetings held in May and November, and the G7 Summit in June. In particular, at the G7 Foreign Ministers' Meeting in May, clear statements on economic security were set out in the G7 Foreign Ministers' Communiqué for the first time. Furthermore, at the G7 Elmau Summit, the G7 Leaders' Communiqué also clearly mentioned economic security for the first time, and affirmed the deepening of cooperation to respond to economic coercion. The G7 Foreign Ministers' Statement issued in November affirmed that the G7 will continue to enhance coordination and cooperation, within and beyond the G7, including on economic security challenges, and to stand up to acts of economic coercion.

With regard to Japan's relations with Southeast Asian countries, the Joint Statement between Japan and the Kingdom of Cambodia, issued in March, stated that the two leaders expressed concerns about economic coercion and emphasized the importance of strengthening the international economic order to counter new challenges such as economic coercion. At the same meeting, the two leaders also confirmed the importance of advancing the development of secure, open, and transparent 5G and beyond 5G networks (i.e. 6G) as well as the importance of principles such as openness or diversity for ensuring long term security, reliability and resilience of telecommunication infrastructures including 5G. The Joint Statement issued from the Japan-Philippines Foreign and Defense Ministerial Meeting (“2+2”) held in April also expressed concern for and strong opposition to economic coercion to achieve political ends, stressed the importance of an international law-based economic order, and highlighted the importance of close coordination in dealing with economic coercion.

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• 4 Refers to radio access networks (RAN) that can be built in an open way by a combination of multiple vendors. It offers the advantage of contributing to the mitigation of supply chain risks.

E Response to Economic Coercion

Among the new issues described in “C” above, economic coercion that involves using economic ties with a specific country and taking measures or threatening to take measures in an abusive, arbitrary, or opaque manner, in order to achieve political objectives, is becoming a particularly serious problem against the backdrop of globalization and the growing economic interdependence between countries. Such economic coercion poses challenges to a free, open and rules-based international order.

The new National Security Strategy formulated by the Government of Japan in December also sets out the policy for promoting effective efforts against economic coercion, while working with the ally and like-minded countries. As an issue that cannot be adequately addressed by existing international agreements, it is important to foster a common understanding within the international community by working with its ally and like-minded countries and strategically raising international awareness.

F MOFA's Role

Changes in the global security environment have increased a need to maintain and strengthen the rules-based international economic order, while also taking into account the perspective of security. MOFA is the ministry that is responsible for security policies, external economic relations and international law, and it continues to lead diplomatic efforts related to economic security, as well as to work proactively to maintain and strengthen the international order.

(3) Cyber

Today, cross-border cyberspace has become an indispensable social infrastructure for conducting all activities in countries around the world. While its importance and public nature are growing due to its role as a public space that all citizens are engaged in, the risks that impede free access to and utilization of cyberspace are becoming increasingly serious. In particular, the threat of cyberattacks, in which the risk of exposure is relatively low and attackers have an advantage, is growing rapidly. Cyberattacks have been used constantly to disable or destroy critical infrastructures, interfere in foreign elections, demand ransoms, and steal sensitive information, even in the form of state-sponsored cyberattacks. It is highly likely that hybrid warfare, combining military and non-military means to achieve military objectives, will be conducted in an even more sophisticated form in the time ahead.

Based on this recognition, MOFA is promoting the following diplomatic efforts to realize a free, fair and secure cyberspace: promoting the rule of law, efforts to deter cyberattacks, promoting confidence-building measures, and cooperating on capacity building.

To promote the rule of law, establishing the rule of law in cyberspace is important for stabilizing relations between nations. From the viewpoint that existing international law is also applicable to activities involving the use of cyberspace, Japan participates actively in discussions in the Open-ended Working Group (OEWG), which all UN member states participate in, for the term from 2021 to 2025.

As an initiative to deter cyberattacks, Japan has issued the “public attribution,” which is for each country to publicly condemn or express concerns about groups conducting cyberattacks. Japan has publicly condemned North Korea's involvement behind the scenes on the WannaCry⁵ incident in 2017, as well as the long-running cyberattacks perpetrated by the China-based group APT10 in 2018. In July 2021, the Press Secretary of MOFA issued a statement on cyberattacks, assessing that a group known as APT40, which the Chinese government is behind, as well as a group known as Tick, which Unit 61419 of the Chinese People's Liberation Army is behind, were highly likely to have been involved in these cyberattacks, and firmly condemned these activities in coordination with Japan's ally and likeminded countries. From the perspective of deterring cyberattacks, it is also important to promote the rule of law. Through means such as discussions in the international fora, it is necessary to formulate and promote rules for the international community that make a state accountable for a cyberattack carried out within its territory, even when the cyberattack is not attributed to the state actor, under certain conditions.

As a means of promoting confidence-building measures, Japan has engaged in consultations on cyber issues with 14 countries and regions to date, taking into account the need to deepen mutual understanding and build confidence between states in order to prevent the inadvertently heightening of tensions among states or aggravating of the situation between countries as a result of the highly anonymous and covert nature of cyberspace. Consultations were held with India in June 2022, and with France in July the same year. Japan also places importance on regional efforts, and engages in discussions on confidence-building measures that should be taken in the future at the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in which ASEAN, the U.S., the EU among others participate.

With regard to capacity building support, in view of the borderless nature of cyberspace, enhancing the capacity of other countries and regions contributes to the security environment for the world as a whole. Relevant ministries and agencies including MOFA continue to provide support for capacity building and promote initiatives through international organizations, mainly to ASEAN, which is the core of the Indo-Pacific region. Specifically, Japan contributes to the ASEAN-Japan Cybersecurity Capacity Building Centre (AJCCBC) through the Japan-ASEAN Integration Fund (JAIF), provides cybersecurity-related equipment through grant aid, implements the JICA Country/Knowledge Co-Creation Program (KCCP), and contributes to the Cybersecurity Multi-Donor Trust Fund through the World Bank, among other initiatives. The Quad Cybersecurity Partnership was launched at the Japan-Australia-India-U.S. (Quad) Leaders' Meeting held in May, and the four leaders confirmed that they would advance concrete efforts, including providing support for capacity building in the Indo-Pacific region.

Japan announced the new National Security Strategy in December, which states: “In order to ensure secure and stable use of cyberspace, especially the security of the nation and critical infrastructures, the response capabilities in the field of cyber security should be strengthened equal to or surpassing the level of leading Western countries.” To that end, it states the introduction of active cyber defense and the establishment of a new organization that will comprehensively coordinate policies in the field of cyber security in a centralized manner. The Strategy also states that Japan will improve coordination with other policies that contribute to the enhancement of cyber security, such as economic security and the enhancement of technical capabilities related to national security, and continue to work for the enhancement of information gathering and analysis, attribution and its public announcement, as well as formulation of international frameworks and rules in a coordinated manner with its ally, like-minded countries, and others.

Based on this Strategy, Japan will continue to contribute to the realization of a free, fair and secure cyberspace.

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• 5 A malicious program that North Korea is believed to have been involved in. In May 2017, more than 300,000 computers in more than 150 countries were infected and ransom was demanded.

(4) The Oceans and Seas

Japan is surrounded by the sea on all sides and is blessed with a vast exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and long coastlines. It is a maritime nation that has achieved economic growth through maritime trade and development of marine resources, and has pursued “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” which are upheld by maritime order based on the rule of law including freedom of navigation and overflight, rather than force, are essential for the peace and prosperity not only of Japan but also of the international community as a whole. To maintain and develop “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” Japan promotes initiatives to ensure safe maritime transport and cooperate on maritime security. Such initiatives are also important toward securing Japan's maritime interests, which form the basis for Japan's economic survival.

Japan is advancing efforts toward the realization of a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP)” that aims to bring stability and prosperity to the Indo-Pacific region, in particular, by strengthening maritime order in the region where important sea lanes are located.

A Maritime Order

(A) Basic Stance

There is an increasing number of cases where the interests of countries clash with each other from the perspective of securing maritime interests and national security. In particular, in the seas of Asia, there has been an increasing number of cases of tension arising from friction between countries, and the international community is paying attention to these cases with much interest. At the 13th Asia Security Summit (Shangri-La Dialogue) held in Singapore in 2014, Prime Minister Abe shared the view that it was necessary to fully uphold the “Three Principles of the Rule of Law at Sea” (see 6(2) on page 252).

Japan also utilizes frameworks such as the G7 and ASEAN-related meetings including the East Asia Summit (EAS) and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)⁶ to actively send a message regarding the importance of “Free, Open and Stable Seas” based on the rule of law, and Japan's stance on maritime security as well as the importance of international cooperation in this area. At the EAS held in October 2021, Prime Minister Kishida stated that Japan highly valued the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP), which upholds values such as openness, transparency, inclusiveness, and the rule of law. He reiterated full support for the AOIP, which shares fundamental principles with FOIP, and called on each country for their support. In addition, at the ASEAN-Japan Summit Meeting held in November 2022, Prime Minister Kishida spoke about the steady progress of concrete cooperation in the four priority areas of AOIP,⁷ including maritime cooperation, that contributes to the fundamental principles of AOIP, after the adoption of the Joint Statement of the 23rd ASEAN-Japan Summit on Cooperation on ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific by Japan and ASEAN in 2020.

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• 6 Regional cooperative frameworks with the participation of the 10 ASEAN countries as well as various countries, regions and organizations. In addition to the EAS and ARF, other examples include the ASEAN+3 (Japan, China, ROK) and Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM).
• 7 The four areas of maritime cooperation, connectivity, SDGs and economy.

(B) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Also known as the “Constitution for the Oceans,” UNCLOS is the very basis of maritime order governed by the rule of law. Japan regards maritime order with the Convention at the core as the cornerstone that safeguards Japan's maritime rights and interests while facilitating its maritime activities across the international community. As such, Japan actively contributes to discussions among concerned international organizations at conferences that include the Meetings of States Parties to the Convention, as well as to the sharing of ideas for achieving stability in the maritime legal order, in order to ensure that the convention will be even more widely applied and implemented appropriately (see 6(2) on page 252).

(C) Challenge to Japan's Maritime Sovereignty (Situation Surrounding the East China Sea) (see Chapter 2, Section 2, 2(1) B(D) on page 50)

In the East China Sea, China Coast Guard vessels intruded into Japan's territorial sea around the Senkaku Islands in rapid succession in 2022, and the number of days of navigation in the contiguous zone reached a record high of 336 days. Furthermore, there were repeated occurrences of China Coast Guard vessels intruding into the territorial sea and approaching Japanese fishing vessels, and the situation is becoming increasingly severe, with the number of hours of intrusion into the territorial sea hitting a record high of 72 hours and 45 minutes in December. Chinese military vessels and aircraft are also becoming increasingly active and expanding their operations. Furthermore, China has been continuing with unilateral resource development in areas where the EEZ and the continental shelf are pending delimitation. Additionally, in recent years, Japan has found numerous research projects being conducted by China in the waters surrounding Japan, such as the East China Sea, without Japan's consent.

Given China's continued unilateral attempts to change the status quo in the East China Sea, Japan will carefully monitor the trends and movements around its air and sea spaces, and continue to respond in a firm but calm manner while making claims that should be made. At the same time, it will promote cooperation with the relevant countries including the U.S. in order to achieve peace and stability in the East China Sea.

(D) Challenge to the Maritime Order (Problems Surrounding the South China Sea) (see Chapter 2, Section 2, 7(2) on page 95)

In the South China Sea, China has been conducting unilateral attempts to change the status quo, which run counter to the rule of law and openness, as well as attempting to create faits accomplis. These include the further militarization of disputed features. China has also continued or enhanced actions that escalate tensions in the region. The international community, including Japan, has expressed serious concerns over these actions. Japan strongly opposes unilateral attempts to change the status quo by force or coercion, and has consistently supported the full enforcement of the rule of law in the South China Sea, while focusing on ensuring freedom of navigation and overflight and ensuring the safety of sea lanes. Japan has also emphasized the importance of all parties involved with the South China Sea to work toward the peaceful settlement of disputes in accordance with international law, in particular the UNCLOS.

The issue with regard to the South China Sea is directly related to the peace and stability of the region and constitutes a legitimate concern of the international community. The issue is also an important matter of concern for Japan, which depends on marine transport for much of its resources and energy and which is a stakeholder that utilizes the South China Sea. Cooperation within the international community is of great importance in maintaining and developing “Free, Open and Stable Seas” based on the rule of law. For this reason, Japan supports the U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations.⁸

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• 8 The U.S. Government explains its “freedom of navigation” operations as efforts to challenge excessive claims that can infringe freedom of navigation and overflight, and the right of lawful uses of the sea. One example of this is the navigation of the U.S. Navy's USS Benfold guided-missile destroyer through the waters around the Spratly Islands on September 8, 2021.

B Ensuring Safe Maritime Transport

Japan actively contributes to ensuring freedom of navigation and overflight and safe maritime transport through counter-piracy measures in Asia and Africa as well as close partnership and cooperation with other countries.

(A) Counter-piracy Measures in Asia

According to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB) of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the number of piracy cases in the seas of Southeast Asia was 62 in 2020, 56 in 2021, and 58 in 2022.

To encourage regional cooperation in coping with incidents such as acts of piracy in Asia, Japan took the initiative in formulating the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP), which entered into force in 2006. Each of the contracting parties provides information and cooperates on incidents such as acts of piracy in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore and other regions, via the Information Sharing Centre (ReCAAP-ISC) established in Singapore. To date, Japan has been supporting the activities of ReCAAP-ISC by dispatching the Executive Directors (left office in March 2022) and Assistant Directors and making financial contributions. Moreover, Japan is carrying out programs to support enhancing maritime law enforcement and surveillance capabilities of coastal states in Asia, which have been highly acclaimed in the international community.

(B) Counter-piracy Measures Off the Coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden

According to the IMB, the number of piracy and armed robbery cases off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden was 237 at its peak in 2011 but has since declined to a low level (zero in 2019 and 2020, one in 2021 (attempted attack), and zero in 2022). Despite efforts such as maritime operations of the navies and self-defense measures by merchant ships of various countries, the root causes of piracy off the coast of Somalia remain unresolved. There are presently still entities in these areas of the ocean that have the intention and capability to carry out acts of piracy.

Since 2009, Japan has been conducting counter-piracy operations by deploying Maritime Self-Defense Force destroyers (with coast guard officers on board) and P-3C patrol aircraft off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden. To solve the root causes of piracy in these areas, Japan has been making multilayered efforts that include support for enhancing the maritime security capabilities of Somalia and its neighboring countries and ensuring the stability of Somalia.

Japan has supported the establishment of Information Sharing Centres in Yemen, Kenya and Tanzania, as well as the construction of the Djibouti Regional Training Centre (DRTC) by contributing 15.53 million US dollars to date to a fund established by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Moreover, Japan has contributed 4.5 million US dollars to an international trust fund that enhances capacity building for piracy prosecution, to support Somalia and its neighboring countries. In addition, Japan provided two patrol vessels to the Djibouti Coast Guard in 2015, and decided in 2021 to provide support for the construction of two patrol vessels as well as the improvement of a floating pier. Japan has also been supporting the enhancement of its capacity to secure maritime security through JICA's technical cooperation and joint exercises with the Deployment Surface Force for Counter-Piracy Enforcement. Furthermore, with a view to promoting the stability of Somalia, Japan has provided a total of over 500 million US dollars since 2007 aimed at supporting the recovery of basic social services, enhancing public security maintenance functions through support for the police, as well as revitalization of the domestic industries through vocational training, among other measures.

(C) Counter-piracy Measures in the Gulf of Guinea

According to the IMB, while the number of piracy and armed robbery cases in the Gulf of Guinea had remained at a high level in recent years with 64 cases in 2019 and 84 cases in 2020, it fell to 35 cases in 2021 and 19 cases in 2022. Moreover, in recent years, piracy cases have been occurring more frequently along the Central African coast in a shift from the previous piracy hotbed of the Western African coast. While the strengthening of maritime law enforcement capabilities among coastal states remains a key issue, such efforts are limited by financial constraints. Japan provides the coastal states with capacity building assistance through trainings conducted by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and JICA, and is also involved in discussions in the international community through participation in the “G7++ Group of Friends of the Gulf of Guinea,”⁹ a cooperative and coordination mechanism to address illegal maritime activities in the Gulf of Guinea.

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• 9 In addition to the G7, non-G7 countries (+) and international organizations (+) participate in the Group.

C Cooperation on Maritime Security

(A) Capacity Building Assistance

Japan provides seamless assistance to various countries for capacity building in the area of maritime security, through cooperation between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), the Ministry of Defense and Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Coast Guard and other agencies.

MOFA provides capacity building assistance to law enforcement agencies and other organizations in developing countries, through the provision of equipment such as patrol vessels and human resource development implemented through bilateral ODA. With the aim of addressing the diverse illegal maritime activities that have been increasing further in recent years, MOFA provides support toward the Maritime Law Enforcement Capacity Building Project implemented by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) under its Global Maritime Crime Programme (GMCP), and in cooperation with the Japan Coast Guard, develops training courses and conducts training and workshops related to measures against illegal maritime activities in the target countries.

The Ministry of Defense and Self-Defense Forces have provided capacity building assistance in the area of maritime security to Myanmar,¹⁰ Thailand, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Brunei to date. Through these support initiatives, cooperative relations with partners that share strategic interests with Japan are strengthened.

To provide capacity building assistance to coast guard authorities of coastal states of the Indo-Pacific, the Japan Coast Guard dispatches highly skilled Japan Coast Guard officials with expert knowledge as well as the Japan Coast Guard Mobile Cooperation Team (MCT), a special team that provides capacity building support, to the coast guard authorities of each country. In addition, the Japan Coast Guard also invites the coast guard officials from each country to Japan where it conducts training for them. It also administers the Maritime Safety and Security Policy Program, a Master's level education program on maritime security policy that accepts coast guard officials from Asian countries. Through this program, the Japan Coast Guard contributes to the development of human resources with advanced practical and applied knowledge, knowledge on international law and international relations as well as research into the relevant case studies, the ability to conduct analysis and make proposals, and international communication skills.

When providing such capacity building assistance, Japan cooperates closely with like-minded countries including the U.S., Australia, India, the UK, and France.

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• 10 Assistance is currently suspended (as of December 2022)

(B) Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA)

Consolidating and sharing a wide range of maritime information and understanding maritime domain effectively and efficiently are vital toward the realization of “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” Japan places great importance on international cooperation with like-minded countries, including Japan-Australia-India-U.S. (Quad) cooperation, in such maritime domain awareness (MDA) initiatives.

In recent years, progress has been made in the Indo-Pacific region to establish information sharing centers for the consolidation, analysis and sharing of maritime information, such as phenomena related to the safety of navigation and ship information. Japan has dispatched personnel, including Executive Directors (left office in March 2022) and Assistant Directors, to the ReCAAP-ISC based in Singapore, as well as liaison officers to the Information Fusion Centre (IFC) established by the Republic of Singapore Navy, and the Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) established by the Indian Navy. Furthermore, the authorities of Japan and India exchange information based on the Implementing Arrangement for Deeper Cooperation between the Japan Maritime Self- Defense Force and the Indian Navy, signed on the occasion of the Japan-India Summit Meeting held in October 2018.

Japan also organized two previous sessions of the “ARF Workshop on International Cooperation on Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA)” as an official event of the ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting on Maritime Security.

(5) Outer Space

In recent years, outer space has become congested due to its diversified use and increasing number of countries using space. In addition, the increase of space debris due to factors such as anti-satellite (ASAT) tests and satellite collisions poses a growing risk to the sustainable and stable use of outer space.

In order to cope with this situation, Japan has been engaging in initiatives such as strengthening Space Situational Awareness (SSA) and mission assurance for space systems. Japan has also been working on international rule-making and international space cooperation.

A Realization of the Rule of Law in Outer Space

The international community has been vigorously discussing international rule-making concerning outer space activities in a variety of ways. Japan has also been actively involved in these efforts toward establishing and strengthening the rule of law in outer space.

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), a permanent committee established under the UN General Assembly, plays an important role in international rule-making related to civil space activities.

Apart from the Committee, which engages in comprehensive discussions, COPUOS has the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, which conducts reviews on issues related to space activities from scientific and technical aspects, and the Legal Subcommittee, which discusses legal matters arising from space activities.

At the session of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee convened in February, active discussions were held on the long-term sustainability of outer space activities, in addition to individual themes, such as space debris and remote sensing.

At the session of the Legal Subcommittee convened from March to April, discussions were held on issues related to the definition of outer space and equitable access to the geostationary satellite orbit, as well as on Space Traffic Management (STM) and space resources, which have been attracting more attention in recent years. In particular, with reference to space resources, intensive discussions were held on how international rules regarding space resources should be at the Working Group on Space Resources, newly established under the Legal Subcommittee in 2021 (chaired by Professor AOKI Setsuko of the Keio University Law School).

With regard to the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS), the Open-Ended Working Group, established for the period of 2022 to 2023 based on the resolution on “Reducing space threats through norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours” jointly proposed by Japan, the UK, and other countries, held its first meeting in May and its second meeting in September. During these meetings, active discussions were held on the international laws applied to outer space, and responsible or irresponsible behaviors in outer space.

In April, Vice President of the U.S. Kamala Harris announced that the Government of the U.S. would not conduct destructive, direct-ascent ASAT missile testing. In response, the Government of Japan released a statement by the Press Secretary of MOFA, welcoming and supporting the announcement by the U.S. In addition, the Government of Japan also announced in September, at the aforementioned Open-Ended Working Group meeting, that it has made the same decision as the U.S. in view of its stance to actively promote discussions in the international fora toward the development of norms regarding responsible behaviors.

With regard to the declaration by the U.S., like-minded countries, including the U.S. and Japan, jointly submitted a resolution promoting this matter to the First Committee of the UN General Assembly. The resolution was adopted at the Plenary Meeting of the UN General Assembly in November, with the support of 154 countries.

Furthermore, with a view to contributing to the rule of law in outer space, Japan has been offering support to developing countries toward capacity building in the development and implementation of domestic space-related laws. Specifically, in May 2021, Japan announced that it would cooperate on the “Space Law for New Space Actors” project of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). Under this initiative, Japan provides support to emerging space-faring nations in the Asia Pacific region for the development and implementation of domestic space-related laws.

B International Dialogues and Consultations on Outer Space

Japan promotes dialogues and consultations on outer space primarily with major space-faring nations, represented by the U.S., and nations in the Asia-Pacific region (see D on page 201 about the relationship with the U.S.).

In particular, Japan regularly holds bilateral dialogues on outer space with the U.S., France, the EU, and India. In addition to exchanging information on their respective space policies, various exchanges of opinions are also held on subjects, including security cooperation and inter-agency cooperation.

As part of the efforts under the Quad (Japan-Australia-India-U.S.), at the Summit Meeting held in September 2021, the four leaders concurred on launching a working group on space to advance cooperation in the field of space. At the Quad Leaders' Meeting held in May 2022, the Quad Satellite Data Portal was launched to aggregate links to satellite data resources held by the four countries, and the four leaders expressed their intention to support countries in the region through the utilization of space capabilities to respond to extreme precipitation events as well as efforts for the sustainable use of space.

With regard to multilateral meetings, the 28th session of the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF-28), co-organized by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST), was held in November. At this Forum, discussions were held on expanding the space industry, promoting sustainable space activities for the future, and contributing to the resolution of social issues.

C International Space Exploration and the International Space Station (ISS)

The progress of space exploration and application for peaceful purposes is a common benefit for all humankind, and is also of diplomatic significance.

In 2019, Japan decided to participate in the Artemis Program, a U.S.-led international space exploration program. In 2020, with the Artemis Program in mind, eight countries, including Japan and the U.S., signed the Artemis Accords, which set out a political commitment to establish principles for creating a safe and transparent environment in promoting outer space activities. Thereafter, more countries signed the Artemis Accords, and the number of signatories increased to 21 countries as of July 2022.

In 2020, the Governments of Japan and the U.S. concluded a Memorandum of Understanding concerning Cooperation on the Civil Lunar Gateway, a human outpost in the lunar vicinity that will be developed as a part of the Artemis Program. In November 2022, MEXT and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) signed an Implementing Arrangement setting out the details of cooperation on the Civil Lunar Gateway.

Furthermore, the Governments of Japan and the U.S. advanced negotiations on the Framework Agreement between Japan and the United States of America for Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, which is a new legal framework to further facilitate Japan-U.S. space cooperation, represented by the exploration and use of outer space. The two governments signed the Agreement in January 2023.

With regard to the International Space Station (ISS), NASA announced in January that the U.S. would extend the operation period of the ISS until 2030. Following that, in November, Japan also announced its participation in the operational extension ahead of other countries and organizations.

In the ISS, Japan provides emerging space-faring nations with the opportunities to conduct experiments using the ISS/Japanese Experiment Module “Kibo” and to deploy cube satellites, with the aim of providing support for capacity building in the field of space. In August 2022, the Republic of Moldova's first satellite, a nanosatellite, was deployed. The Workshop on Africa-Japan CubeSat Cooperation was held in the same month, co-organized by JAXA, Kyushu Institute of Technology, the Center for Spatial Information Science at the University of Tokyo, and organizations on the Tunisian side. Seven African countries¹¹ presented reports on the capabilities they have gained through the nanosatellites acquired with Japan's support as well as the issues they faced, and discussions were held on utilizing satellite data to build up satellite technologies and resolve social issues.

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• 11 Seven African countries: Kenya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Egypt, Tunisia, Uganda, Zimbabwe

D Addressing Global Issues through the Utilization of Space Technology

Amidst rising expectations of space technology's potential in resolving global issues in recent years, Japan has been promoting international cooperation based on the utilization of its internationally superior space technologies, and contributing toward the achievement of the SDGs.

For example, the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) (Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis) contributed by Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in August, cites many scientific papers that used Japanese satellites and utilizes Earth observation satellite data from Japan. In these ways, Japanese knowhow and data are continuously provided to the international community. In addition, Japan has provided the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with examples of the utilization of space technology, such as the outcomes of observation of greenhouse gases from space, which Japan holds the world's longest observation record for, and the JICA-JAXA Forest Early Warning System in the Tropics (JJ-FAST). These serve as useful information for the Global Stocktake (GST), which is a five-yearly evaluation process of the global progress status toward achieving the long-term targets of the Paris Agreement.

Japan also provides, at no charge, the Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP) system, which utilizes multiple satellites to observe the global rainfall situation. This system is applied to a wide range of uses, including rainfall situation monitoring, disaster management and agriculture, in 141 countries and regions around the world. Furthermore, Japan took the lead in launching “Sentinel Asia,” an initiative to provide free observational satellite information during disasters to contribute to disaster management in the Asia-Pacific region. To date, this project has responded to more than 400 emergency requests from 36 countries. Japan also holds workshops for those who are involved in disaster readiness and response, and contributes to capacity building in the utilization of satellite data during disasters in Asian countries.

In light of the global spread of COVID-19, JAXA, NASA, and the European Space Agency (ESA) joined forces to implement an observation project to capture information on the Earth's environment, economic activities, and other aspects (such as changes in carbon dioxide concentration in large cities, changes in airport hangars and car parks, etc.) before and after the pandemic. The results of their analysis are published on a dedicated website.

(6) Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding

The international community is still experiencing regional and domestic conflicts as a result of various factors including differences in race, religion, and history, or due to the impact of poverty and disparity. In recent years, the protracted nature of these conflicts has particularly become a challenging problem. For this reason, in addition to post-conflict peacekeeping through the dispatch of UN Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) and other means, peacebuilding efforts with building a foundation for development in mind, are an agenda for the international community as a whole, in order to prevent conflicts and their recurrence, as well as post-conflict nation-building and the consolidation of sustainable peace.

Russia's aggression against Ukraine in 2022 had a significant negative impact on the global economy, society and stability. For example, it gave rise to a serious humanitarian crisis due to rising food and energy prices. Furthermore, there have also been concerns in recent years about the impact of climate change on peace and stability. As issues facing the international community become more complex and diverse, peacebuilding initiatives are becoming increasingly important.

A On-the-Ground Initiatives

(A) UN Peacekeeping Operations (UN PKO)

As of December 31, 2022, 12 UN PKO missions are on active duty, primarily in the Middle East and Africa, to handle a wide range of duties that include monitoring cease-fires, promoting political process, and protecting civilians. More than 80,000 military, police, and civilian personnel have been deployed to these missions. In response to the increasing complexity and scale of the mandates and the associated shortages of personnel, equipment, and financial resources, discussions on more effective and efficient implementation of UN PKO are underway in various fora including the UN.

In addition to PKO missions, the UN has also established Special Political Missions (SPMs) mainly consisting of civilian personnel. SPMs fulfill diverse roles including the peaceful settlement of disputes, post-conflict peacebuilding, and conflict prevention.

Based on the Act on Cooperation with UN Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations (PKO Act), since 1992 Japan has dispatched more than 12,500 personnel to a total of 29 missions over the last 30 years, including UN PKO missions. More recently, since 2011, Japanese staff officers have been dispatched to the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), while engineering units have been deployed there from 2012. The engineering units in the South Sudanese capital of Juba and the surrounding areas undertook such activities as developing infrastructure that included roads, the provision of water supplies to displaced persons, as well as site preparation, and concluded their activities in May 2017. As of December 31, 2022, four Self-Defense Forces of Japan (SDF) officers are on active duty at the UNMISS Headquarters, who continue to work toward peace and stability in South Sudan. Additionally, since April 2019, Japan has been conducting activities contributing to peace and stability in the Middle East by dispatching two SDF officers to the Headquarters for the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), which is stationed in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula. On the basis of its past experiences of peacekeeping operations and making use of its own strengths, Japan will continue to contribute proactively in the field of international peace cooperation in the future by means such as enhancing capacity building support and dispatching units and individuals.

(B) ODA and Other Cooperation to Facilitate Peacebuilding

In addressing prolonged conflicts and increasingly diverse humanitarian crises, peacebuilding and preventing the recurrence of conflict even in peacetime, in addition to humanitarian assistance and development cooperation, are important toward the realization of an inclusive society. There is a greater need than before to address the root causes of crises through assistance for self-reliant development by building resilient nations and stabilizing societies from a medium- to long-term perspective. Japan has been providing support for peacebuilding based on this “humanitarian-development-peace nexus” approach, and positions peacebuilding as one of the priority issues in its Development Cooperation Charter. The following are some of the main initiatives implemented recently.

a. Middle East

Japan has provided comprehensive support for peace and stability in the Middle East. This includes providing food and refugee assistance, as well as support for the development of human resources who can play an active role in nation-building. Japan received 12 students from Syria in 2022 to offer education to young people who were deprived of opportunities to attend school due to the Syrian crisis. As for Palestine, in addition to an increase in the refugee population, it is also facing serious deterioration of the living environment, including the deteriorated refugee camp infrastructure as well as unemployment and poverty. In light of this, Japan worked on improving the living environment of refugees through the implementation of the Camp Improvement Project (CIP) at refugee camps in Palestine, as well as by providing support to educational facilities, and contributed to the stabilization and improvement of the people's welfare based on human security.

b. Africa

At the Eighth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD 8) in 2022, Japan presented its view of working with African countries to bring about a peaceful and stable Africa, so that the people of Africa can live in peace. Japan announced the appointment of an Ambassador, Special Envoy for the “Horn of Africa,”¹² with a view to establishing stability and democracy in the “Horn of Africa” region. While respecting Africa's ownership, Japan provides support for African-led efforts under the New Approach for Peace and Stability in Africa (NAPSA), which approaches the root causes hampering human security, and peace and stability. These include consolidating democracy and promoting the rule of law, conflict prevention and peacebuilding, and support toward strengthening the foundations of the community.

For example, Japan has conducted criminal justice training since 2014 for Francophone African countries, and has supported stabilization of the Sahel region by strengthening the capabilities of investigative and judicial bodies. Japan has also provided African countries with security equipment to improve their ability to maintain security against frequent terrorism attacks and transnational crimes, and provided support toward landmine clearance. In November 2022, Japan, in cooperation with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), decided to provide support to Guinea-Bissau, one of the countries covered in country-specific meetings of the UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC). This support aims at promoting transparency and accountability in government administrations, with a view to preventing corruption and consolidating peace.

In South Sudan, along with dispatching personnel to UNMISS Headquarters, in response to the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS)¹³ signed in 2018, Japan has been supporting the implementation of the agreement and cease-fire monitoring through the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), a regional organization in East Africa, as well as other organizations. Furthermore, Japan, in collaboration with the UNDP, has disbursed a total of 63.8 million US dollars between 2008 and 2022 to Peacekeeping Training Centers located in 14 African countries, contributing to strengthening Africa's capacity for peacekeeping activities.

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• 12 The “Horn of Africa” refers to the region on the northeastern part of the African continent that protrudes in the shape of a horn toward the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. It encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, and Kenya.
• 13 As the implementation of the Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan, issued in 2015, seemed to have stagnated, this Revitalized Agreement, bringing together stakeholders in South Sudan by IGAD, set out matters including the implementation schedule for the observance of cease-fire.

B Initiatives within the UN

Against the backdrop of the growing awareness within the international community of the need for peacebuilding efforts, the UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) was established in 2006 as an advisory body of the UN Security Council and General Assembly, with the aim of providing consistent advice on assistance, from conflict resolution to recovery, reintegration and reconstruction. In addition to conducting discussions on the approach to peacebuilding in countries and regions, including its agenda countries,¹⁴ the PBC also engages in discussions on themes such as women, peace, and security (WPS) and security sector reform (SSR). In recent years, there have been increasing opportunities for the PBC to fulfill its advisory function to the Security Council and General Assembly. Japan has consistently served as a member of the core Organizational Committee since the PBC's establishment and contributed actively in ways such as by advocating for the importance of institution building and human resources development as well as the need to strengthen cooperation between the PBC and key actors (UN agencies such as the Security Council, General Assembly, and PBC, donor countries, regional institutions, international financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF, and the private sector, among others).

Japan has made active contributions to the Peacebuilding Fund (PBF),¹⁵ established in 2006, as a major donor country. As of December 31, 2022, Japan has contributed a total of 61.3 million US dollars.

Japan will continue to address peacebuilding as one of its priorities during its two-year term on the UN Security Council starting from January 2023. Foreign Minister Hayashi also conveyed its commitment to further contribute to peacebuilding when Ms. Elizabeth Spehar, UN Assistant-Secretary-General for Peacebuilding Support, visited Japan in November 2022. Japan hosted an open debate on peacebuilding as the President of the UN Security Council in January 2023.

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• 14 The four countries of Guinea-Bissau, Central African Republic, Liberia and Burundi.
• 15 A fund established in October 2006 to provide support to regions, including Africa, for stopping the recurrence of regional conflicts and civil war after they have ended as well as preventing conflicts. Specifically, the fund supports peace processes and political dialogues, economic revitalization, institution building for nations, and the participation by women and youths in nation-building, among other initiatives.

C Human Resource Development

(A) The Program for Global Human Resource Development for Peacebuilding and Development

While highly skilled civilian experts with expertise have a substantial role to play in the field of post-conflict peacebuilding, the number of those capable of fulfilling the role is insufficient. Therefore, the development of relevant human resources remains a major challenge. Japan has been implementing a program for Human Resource Development in order to cultivate civilian experts who can play a leading role in the field. As of the end of 2022, more than 900 people have been trained. The participants who completed the program have gone on to play an active role in the field of peacebuilding and development in Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world, and have received high acclaim from both the UN and different countries. Out of the approximately 190 participants who have completed the training course for entry level human resources (hereafter, “Primary Course”) to date, close to 80 work as regular staff at international organizations. Hence, this program also contributes significantly to the career development of Japanese nationals, as well as the enhancement of their presence in international organizations in the fields of peacebuilding and development. In 2022, the Primary course and a training course for mid-career professionals with experience in the fields of peacebuilding and development were conducted (see the Column on page 224).

(B) Training for Peacekeepers of Various Countries

Japan has been supporting peacekeepers from various countries participating in UN PKO to enhance their capabilities. Since 2015, in conjunction with cooperative efforts among the UN, supporting member states, and troop contributing countries, Japan has been cooperating with the Triangular Partnership Programme (TPP), a framework for innovative cooperation aimed at addressing the urgent need to improve the capabilities of PKO personnel by providing necessary training and equipment. For example, Japan has funded and dispatched SDF personnel and other individuals as instructors. To date, Japan has conducted training on the operation of heavy engineering equipment for 312 personnel from eight African countries that expressed intentions to dispatch engineering units to UN PKO. Since 2018, the TPP has been extended to Asia and the surrounding regions. Following on from Vietnam, Japan has conducted training for 20 engineering personnel from Indonesia for the first time in Indonesia. Additionally, in October 2019 a lifesaving training program began in the medical field, a considerably problematic area for UN PKO, while support for the introduction of telemedicine into UN PKO missions was launched from 2021. The second trial training for the UN Field Medical Assistants Course (UNFMAC) was held in Uganda in June 2022, and Japan dispatched one SDF medical officer to the course. Japan has dispatched as many as 298 SDF personnel and other individuals as instructors for the operation of heavy engineering equipment and in the field of medicine. Other than TPP, Japan dispatches instructors and other personnel, as well as providing financial assistance, to Peacekeeping Training Centers in Asia and Africa.

(7) Initiatives to Combat Security Threats

Ensuring public security and protecting the lives of the people are the premise of various socioeconomic activities and the basic responsibilities of a country. To cope effectively with security threats such as international terrorism and organized crime, which are rapidly becoming more complex and severe in tandem with social changes such as the advancement of science and technology and the spread of COVID-19, it is vital for the international community to cooperate as a whole.

A Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism

Since the end of 2019, the COVID-19 pandemic has had profound impact not only on domestic politics, economy and society, but also on the international political and economic order, and furthermore, affected people's behavior, mindsets and values. It has also had a major impact on the environment surrounding terrorism. Terrorists continue to carry out their terrorist activities in Asia and other parts of the world while adapting to the new social circumstances that have resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic, such as the weakening of governance as well as social divisions brought about by the manifestation of poverty and racial and ethnic issues. Furthermore, the worldwide dependence on information and communications technology has motivated terrorists and terrorist organizations to spread extremism through the Internet and social media, and moreover, to conduct illegal behavior that could lead to terrorism in cyberspace, such as acquisition of funding for terrorism. There is a pressing need to respond comprehensively to these developments.

Based on the “G7 Action Plan on Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism” compiled at the G7 Ise-Shima Summit in 2016, Japan has to date implemented the following actions: (1) measures to enhance counter-terrorism capacity, which include promoting the utilization of Interpol databases and measures against the funding of terrorism, (2) education and promotion of moderation in communities through dialogues and other means, in order to prevent violent extremism, which is a root cause of terrorism, and (3) support for capacity building of law enforcement agencies, including measures to support rehabilitation in prisons.

To steadily promote measures to counter terrorism and violent extremism, which is an issue that has gained importance due to changes in the environment surrounding terrorism under the COVID-19 pandemic, Japan has been implementing projects through cooperation with international organizations including the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Interpol, and the UN Development Programme (UNDP), among others, by using their respective advantages and expertise effectively.

As an initiative that Japan has carried out continuously for the past 17 years, Japan has also run an exchange program inviting Islamic school teachers from Indonesia and other countries and providing opportunities to experience interfaith dialogue, school visits, and cultural events in Japan. While this was suspended in 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the program was resumed in 2022. Japan will continue to implement the program going forward, in order to help promote moderation and the creation of more tolerant societies that are receptive to different values.

Through bilateral and trilateral counter-terrorism consultations and the Quad (Japan-Australia-India-U.S.) Counter-Terrorism tabletop exercise, among other initiatives, Japan also exchanges information on the world terrorism situations and affirms the strengthening of partnerships in the field of countering terrorism, while developing practical cooperation with other countries.

The Government of Japan promotes counter-terrorism measures in collaboration with relevant countries and organizations. Based on the view that information gathering is critical for combating terrorism, the Government established the Counter Terrorism Unit - Japan (CTU-J) in December 2015 and has been making concerted efforts to gather information with the Prime Minister's Office serving as the control tower. Regarding the incident in which a Japanese national being detained in Syria was safely released in October 2018, this outcome is owed to CTU-J playing a key role in requesting the cooperation of the countries concerned and handling the situation by leveraging Japan's information network. Following the series of terrorist bombings that occurred in Sri Lanka in April 2019, the Director General and other officials from CTU-J were immediately dispatched to the area to gather information. To fulfill the critical responsibility of securing the safety of Japanese nationals overseas, Japan will continue to further enhance its information gathering through the CTU-J and take all possible measures to counter terrorism to ensure the safety of Japanese nationals overseas.

B Criminal Justice Initiatives

The UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (“Congress”) and the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (both of which have their secretariats under UNODC) are in charge of shaping policy on crime prevention and criminal justice in the international community. In March 2021, the 14th Congress (“Kyoto Congress”) was convened in Kyoto. In accordance with the overall theme, “Advancing crime prevention, criminal justice and the rule of law: towards the achievement of the 2030 Agenda,” the political declaration (“Kyoto Declaration”), summarizing the matters that should be addressed over the medium- to long-term by the international community in the areas of crime prevention and criminal justice, was adopted. Since then, in cooperation with UNODC and other organizations, Japan has been demonstrating its leadership in advancing such initiatives as; (1) regularly convening the Criminal Justice Forum for Asia and the Pacific as a platform for information sharing and exchanges of opinions between practitioners in the field of criminal justice in the Asia-Pacific region; (2) regularly holding the Global Youth Forum for a Culture of Lawfulness, with the aim of facilitating independent discussions among youths, and incorporating their views into policies; (3) working toward the formulation of UN model strategies to promote efforts by the international community to reduce reoffending. Japan proactively engages in following up on the Kyoto Declaration through efforts such as submitting resolutions for following up on the Kyoto Declaration within the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, and supporting theme-based discussions on the Kyoto Declaration conducted by UNODC.

Furthermore, Japan provides support to improve prosecution capabilities and other criminal justice functions, to improve the operation of prisons, and to enhance capacities related to measures against cybercrime in Southeast Asian countries, by providing financial contributions to UNODC and Interpol, as well as contributions through the Japan-ASEAN Integration Fund (JAIF).

Japan is a State Party to the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), which establishes a global legal framework for promoting cooperation to prevent and combat transnational organized crime including terrorism more effectively. Japan advances international cooperation that includes providing international assistance in investigations in accordance with the UNTOC and reviewing the implementation of the Convention.

C Anti-corruption Measures

There is growing global interest in addressing corruption, which has been pointed out as a factor that threatens sustainable development and the rule of law. Against this backdrop, Japan, as a State Party to the UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), which sets out provisions for international cooperation and measures to address corruption such as bribery and embezzlement of property by public officials, actively participates in discussions for the effective implementation of the UNCAC and the strengthening of international cooperation on preventing and combating corruption. In September, a country review was conducted on Japan's implementation of the UNCAC regarding the provisions for criminalization and law enforcement (Chapter III) and international cooperation (Chapter IV) by reviewers who visited Japan from Bhutan and Libya. Japan also participates actively in the activities of the G20 Anti-Corruption Working Group and has contributed to formulating political documents in areas related to anti-corruption, including enhancing the role of audits. In addition, Japan contributes to the capacity building of criminal justice practitioners in developing countries by conducting the International Training Course on the Criminal Justice Response to Corruption (UNCAC Training Programme) through the United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (UNAFEI).

Japan is an active participant in the OECD Working Group on Bribery, which verifies the implementation of the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions by each state party to prevent the bribery of foreign public officials.

D Measures to Combat Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism

Regarding anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing (AML/CFT) measures, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an international framework that establishes the international standards that countries should implement and conducts peer reviews to assess levels of implementation. In recent years, the FATF has also been engaged in initiatives to prevent financing for the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and has issued the FATF statement that calls for the eradication of illegal financial activities by North Korea.

As a founding member, Japan has actively participated in these discussions. The Fourth Round Mutual Evaluation Report of Japan was adopted at the FATF Plenary held in June 2021, and was published at the end of August the same year. Japan is steadily making preparations and implementing measures to address the points for improvement raised in this Report.

In addition, Japan takes measures to combat the financing of terrorism as a State Party to the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, and also implements measures to freeze the assets of terrorists and terrorist organizations in accordance with UN Security Council resolution 1373, and designations by the UN Security Council Taliban Sanctions Committee or the ISIL (Da'esh) and Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee. Japan added one organization designated by the ISIL (Da'esh) and Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee in March as a subject for asset freezing measures. As of December 31, Japan has implemented asset freezing measures on 397 individuals and 119 organizations in total.

E Measures to Combat Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants

Japan has strengthened its domestic system to combat trafficking in persons, for which methods are becoming increasingly sophisticated and obscure, while proactively providing assistance to developing countries, in accordance with “Japan's 2014 Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons.” For example, in 2022, Japan continued to conduct training programs through JICA to deepen mutual understanding on human trafficking countermeasures (especially prevention, protection and support to restore the financial independence of victims) of stakeholders in Asian countries, including Japan, and to promote more effective regional cooperation. Furthermore, Japan has been implementing a technical cooperation project with the Government of Thailand via JICA since January, and in August, held a workshop on human trafficking countermeasures to strengthen networks among those involved in such countermeasures in the Mekong region. With respect to cooperation with international organizations, in 2022, through funding to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Japan continued to provide assistance for the safe repatriation of foreign victims of trafficking in persons protected in Japan, and to carry out social reintegration assistance programs to prevent the recurrence of trafficking after they return to their countries. Japan also provided support to strengthen response capabilities, including training programs for law enforcement authorities, by funding projects organized by UNODC in Southeast Asia and the Middle East.

As a State Party to the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, and the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Japan has also further deepened its cooperation with other countries with a view to combating trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants.

F Measures to Combat Illicit Drug Trafficking

In cooperation with UNODC, Japan is working to take measures against the global proliferation of illicit drugs by conducting status surveys and analyses on synthetic drug trafficking, strengthening the capacity for drug control at borders, and supporting the production of alternative crops to reduce illicit drug cultivation.