3 Global Security

(1) Regional Security

The security environment surrounding the Asia- Pacific region is becoming increasingly severe for various reasons such as the shift in the global power balance. Meanwhile, it would be difficult to say that the framework of regional security cooperation is sufficiently institutionalized because of the diversity of political, economic and social systems in the region. Therefore, Japan has been making efforts to realize a desirable regional security environment for Japan, by strengthening the Japan-U.S. Alliance, and combining bilateral and multilateral security cooperation at multifaceted and multilayered levels.

Japan works to further strengthen the deterrence and response capabilities of the Japan-U.S. Alliance as well as to enhance security cooperation with various other countries in addition to the U.S.

In relation to ASEAN Member States, Japan is advancing initiatives that contribute to the stability and prosperity of the region as a whole, basing Japan-ASEAN cooperation on the fundamental principles of the rule of law, openness, freedom, transparency and inclusivity as advocated in the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP) which was announced by ASEAN in June 2019. For instance, Japan offers continuous assistance for improving maritime security including through providing the Philippines, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Indonesia and other countries with patrol boats. Japan is also making progress in defense equipment and technology cooperation, including the conclusion of a contract on the transfer of surveillance radar systems to the Philippines in August as the first overseas transfer of complete equipment from Japan, and the reaching of a substantial agreement for the Agreement concerning the Defense Equipment and Technology Transfer with Viet Nam in October.

In relation to India, the two leaders concurred on continuing to advance the “Japan-India Special Strategic and Global Partnership” in the summit telephone call held in September, and the Agreement between the Government of Japan and the Government of the Republic of India Concerning Reciprocal Provision of Supplies and Services between the Self-Defense Forces of Japan and the Indian Armed Forces (so-called “Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement,” or ACSA) was signed in the same month. The Agreement will promote closer cooperation between the Self-Defense Forces of Japan and the Indian Armed Forces, and enable them to actively contribute to international peace and security. In October, despite the circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic, Japan and India took the opportunity of the Second Japan-Australia-India-U.S. Foreign Ministers' Meeting held in Tokyo to convene the Japan-India Foreign Ministers' Strategic Dialogue, during which the Ministers affirmed their intention to continue boosting cooperation for the promotion of the “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” vision.

In relation to Australia, at the Japan-Australia Summit Meeting held during Prime Minister Scott Morrison's visit to Japan in November, the leaders affirmed that Japan and Australia, as Special Strategic Partners, will continue to work together toward the realization of a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific.” They also welcomed the agreement in principle reached between the two countries on the reciprocal access agreement between Japan and Australia (“Japan-Australia RAA”) aimed at elevating bilateral security and defense cooperation to a new level, and for which negotiations have been ongoing. In sectors such as information and communications and critical minerals, the two leaders concurred on continuing to strengthen economic security cooperation.

In relation to the UK, Japan's “global strategic partner,” and France, Japan's “exceptional partner,” at the Japan-UK Foreign Ministers' Strategic Dialogue in February, the Japan-UK summit telephone call in September, the Japan-France Foreign Ministers' Meeting as well as the Japan-France summit telephone call in October, inter alia, Japan and both countries affirmed the strengthening of cooperation going forward in areas such as maritime security, toward the realization of a free and open Indo-Pacific. In relation to France, the First Japan-France Working Group on the Indo-Pacific was held online in October, during which both sides confirmed that they would deepen concrete cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region. At the video teleconference meeting held by the Foreign Ministers of Japan and Germany in October, in light of the release of the “Policy Guidelines for the Indo-Pacific” by the Government of Germany, the two Ministers shared the view on strengthening Japan-Germany cooperation toward realizing a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific.” In addition, in the Japan-Netherlands summit telephone call held in December, in light of the fact that the Netherlands had released its own Indo-Pacific Guidelines, the two leaders shared the view of working together to realize a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific.” Japan also concurred on cooperating toward the realization of a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” with Italy (March, Foreign Ministers' telephone call), Spain (June, summit telephone call) and Finland (November, Foreign Ministers' telephone call). In January 2021, Foreign Minister Motegi attended the EU Foreign Affairs Council held in a virtual format, during which he explained Japan's stance and initiatives related to a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific.” In response to his statement, many of the EU Member States expressed understanding and support for the importance of ensuring rules-based international order in the Indo-Pacific.

In relation to the Republic of Korea, based on the recognition of the importance of Japan- ROK as well as Japan-U.S.-ROK cooperation toward the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, the two countries held a Japan-ROK Summit Telephone Talk (September), Japan-ROK Foreign Ministers' Meetings (January, February, June (telephone call)) and Japan-U.S.-ROK Foreign Ministers' Meetings (January, February). The two sides confirmed that Japan and the ROK, as well as Japan, the U.S. and the ROK, would work closely together.

There are various issues of concern between Japan and China, such as the rapid strengthening of China's military power lacking transparency, its increasing activities in the waters and air spaces surrounding Japan, including the areas around the Senkaku Islands that are an inherent part of Japan's territory, and its enactment of the Coast Guard Law which includes provisions that are problematic from the viewpoint of their consistency with international law. Japan will continue to make use of opportunities at high-level dialogues, including summit meetings and foreign ministers' meetings, to firmly assert its position and resolve the issues of concern one by one, as well as to take a calm and resolute approach while strongly requesting for China's concrete action. As China's military trends are matters of grave interest to Japan, Japan is working on communicating its policies through security dialogues such as the Japan-China Security Dialogue, as well as efforts to build multilayered channels for exchanges. At the same time, Japan is communicating its concerns and urging China to improve transparency in relation to its defense policies and military power. The Maritime and Aerial Communication Mechanism between the defense authorities of Japan and China that commenced operation in June 2018 has great significance in the sense of promoting mutual understanding and confidence and avoiding unexpected collision.

Regarding Japan-Russia relations, in the area of security, the Japan-Russia Security Consultations took place in January, during which both parties held candid discussions on their security policies and various issues related to international and regional security. During the same month, Japan conducted the second joint counter-piracy exercise with Russian Navy vessels in the Gulf of Aden.

Peace and stability in the Middle East region is vital to the peace and prosperity of the inter-national community including Japan. The Middle East is one of the world's key energy suppliers and approximately 90% of Japan's crude oil imports rely on the region. It is, therefore, extremely important to ensure the safety of navigation of Japan-related vessels in this region. As Japan's independent efforts toward ensuring peace and stability in the Middle East region and the safety of Japan-related vessels, the Government of Japan has made a Cabinet decision in December 2019 on (1) making further diplomatic efforts toward easing tensions and stabilizing the situation in the Middle East, (2) taking thorough measures for ensuring safety of navigation including robust information sharing with relevant stakeholders, and (3) utilizing vessels and aircraft of the SDF for strengthening its information gathering posture. Information gathering activities using SDF vessels and aircraft in the waters of the Middle East began from January 2020.

Japan held the third Politico-Military (PM) Dialogue with Laos in March, as well as the 18th PM Dialogue with the UK in September, the 2nd PM Dialogue with Jordan in October and the 4 th PM Dialogue with Bahrain in October.

In addition to the abovementioned efforts to strengthen bilateral cooperation, Japan is also advancing on the establishment of networks for regional peace and prosperity by promoting various forms of cooperation, including cooperation with the U.S. and Australia, with the U.S. and India, and with the U.S., Australia and India (Second Foreign Ministers' Meeting held in Tokyo in October, and telephone call held in February 2021).

In addition, Japan has actively participated in and contributed to multilateral frameworks in the region, including the East Asia Summit (EAS), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting-Plus (ADMM-Plus), in order to strengthen security cooperation in the region. The ARF is an important security dialogue framework in which various entities participate including North Korea and the EU, and it aims to improve the security environment of the Indo-Pacific region through dialogues and cooperation on political and security issues. It is also an important forum that focuses on confidence building through various initiatives. At the 27th ARF Ministerial Meeting held in September, participating ministers candidly exchanged views mainly on regional and international affairs, including the issues concerning North Korea and the East and South China Seas, as well as the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Japan is also making a proactive contribution through, for example, serving as the co-chair of the Inter-Sessional Meetings (ISM) on Maritime Security twice to date.

Furthermore, in addition to government-to-government dialogues (track 1), Japan actively utilizes frameworks where participants from both public and private sectors exchange opinions and explain their security policies (track 1.5). Japan participates in various conferences, including the IISS Asia Security Summit (Shangri-La Dialogue) (Singapore), and Foreign Minister Motegi attended the Munich Security Conference (Germany) in February 2020 as part of Japan's efforts to promote other countries' understanding of Japan's security policies, and to facilitate cooperation and confidence-building in the region.

(2) Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding

A On-the-Ground Initiatives

(A) UN Peacekeeping Operations (UN PKOs)

As of December 31, 2020, 13 UN PKO missions are on active duty, primarily in the Middle East and Africa, to handle a wide range of duties that include monitoring ceasefires, promoting the political process, and protecting civilians. More than 90,000 military, police, and civilian personnel have been deployed to these missions. In response to the increasing complexity and scale of the mandates and the associated shortages of personnel, equipment, and financial resources, discussions on more effective and efficient implementation of UN PKOs are underway in various forums, primarily within the UN.

Based on the Act on Cooperation with UN Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations (PKO Act), since 1992 Japan has dispatched more than 12,500 personnel to a total of 28 missions, including UN PKOs. More recently, since 2011 Japanese staff officers have been dispatched to the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), while engineering units used to be deployed there from 2012. The engineering units in the South Sudanese capital of Juba and the surrounding areas have undertaken such activities as developing infrastructure that includes roads, supporting displaced persons through the provision of water supplies, as well as site preparation, and concluded their activities in May 2017. As of December 31, 2020, four SDF officers are on active duty at the UNMISS Headquarters, who continue to work toward peace and stability in South Sudan. Additionally, since April 2019, Japan has been conducting activities contributing to peace and stability in the Middle East by dispatching two SDF officers to the Force Headquarters for the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), which is stationed in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula. Under the banner of “Proactive Contribution to Peace,” by building on the past experiences of peacekeeping operations and making use of its own strengths, Japan will continue to contribute proactively in the field of international peace cooperation in the future by means such as enhancing capacity building support and dispatching units and individuals.

(B) ODA and Other Cooperation to Facilitate Peacebuilding

Post-conflict support that effectively combines humanitarian assistance and development cooperation (humanitarian-development nexus) is important for preventing the recurrence of humanitarian crises. At the same time, in order to prevent the outbreak and recurrence of conflicts that give rise to humanitarian crises, it is important to provide support for nation-building and social stabilization from a medium- to long-term perspective even during peacetime, as well as to provide support for autonomous and self-sustaining development. Japan has been providing support for peacebuilding based on this “humanitarian-development-peace nexus” approach, and positions peacebuilding as one of the priority issues in its Development Cooperation Charter. The following are some of the main initiatives implemented recently.

a. Middle East

Japan has provided comprehensive support for peace and stability in the Middle East. This includes providing food and refugee assistance, as well as support for the development of human resources who can play an active role in nation-building. From 2019 to 2020, Japan received 34 people from Afghanistan, including government officials, expected to contribute to such fields as agricultural, rural, and infrastructure development. This has made up a total of 610 international students and other personnel that Japan has received from Afghanistan to date. Japan's efforts in human resource development have steadily borne fruit, as seen in past examples such as an international student who became a vice minister of the government upon returning to the student's home country. Japan also received 16 students from Syria in 2020 to offer education to young people who were deprived of opportunities to attend school due to the Syrian crisis. As for Palestine, in addition to an increase in the refugee population, it is also facing serious deterioration of the living environment, including the deteriorated camp infrastructure as well as unemployment and poverty. In light of this, Japan worked on improving the living environment of refugees through the implementation of the Camp Improvement Project (CIP) at refugee camps in Palestine, and contributed to the stabilization and improvement of the people's welfare based on human security.

b. Africa

At the Seventh Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD7) in 2019, Japan announced the New Approach for Peace and Stability in Africa (NAPSA). Through support for institution building, resilience of local community, prevention of youth radicalization and others, Japan contributes to peace and stability in Africa under the banner of NAPSA while respecting Africa's ownership in conflict resolution and addressing the root causes that hamper peace and stability.

For example, Japan has conducted criminal justice training since 2014 for Francophone African countries, and has supported stabilization of the Sahel region by strengthening the capabilities of investigative and judicial bodies. Japan also actively provides support for elections. During the presidential election in Côte d'Ivoire in October 2020, Japan provided support by supplying equipment and in other ways, in cooperation with the UN Development Programme (UNDP). Japan also supported the Central African Republic's efforts to achieve peace and stability by supplying equipment for the management of elections through UNDP, during the country's presidential elections held in December. Japan is also providing security equipment to strengthen countries' ability to maintain security against frequent terrorist attacks and transnational crimes.

In South Sudan, along with dispatching headquarters staff to UNMISS, in response to the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS)¹ signed in 2018, Japan has been supporting the implementation of the agreement and ceasefire monitoring through the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) , a regional organization in East Africa. Furthermore, Japan, in collaboration with the UNDP, has disbursed a total of 57 million US dollars between 2008 and 2020 to Peacekeeping Training Centers operated by 13 African countries, contributing to strengthening Africa's capacity for peacekeeping activities.

---

• 1 An agreement concluded by bringing together stakeholders in South Sudan in response to the sluggish implementation of the Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan issued in 2015 by IGAD. It provides matters such as a schedule for fulfilling the ceasefire.

B Initiatives within the UN (Peacebuilding)

Based on the understanding that many regional conflicts and civil wars are rekindled even after the conflict has ended, and that it is extremely important to provide appropriate support in the post-conflict period, the UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) was established in 2005 with the aim of offering consistent advice on assistance, from conflict resolution to recovery, reintegration and reconstruction. The PBC conducts discussions to identify priority issues and formulate peacebuilding strategies in the agenda countries.² Japan has served as a member of the Organizational Committee since the PBC's establishment and contributed to its activities.

Based on the “Review of the United Nations peacebuilding architecture” including the PBC of April 2016, the UN Secretary-General issued a report on peacebuilding and sustaining peace (A/72/707-S/2018/43) in February 2018. The report makes a variety of proposals for, inter alia: enhancing financing for peacebuilding; increasing operational and policy coherence of the PBC; and strengthening UN leadership, accountability and capacity. The third “Review of the United Nations peacebuilding architecture” was conducted in 2020, and the UN General Assembly resolution (A/RES/75/201) and Security Council resolution 2558 were adopted in December. While welcoming progress on the implementation of the relevant resolutions of the past, the review affirmed that efforts will be made to continue with the implementation of these resolutions, the importance of the role of the PBC, and the convening of a meeting to discuss sustained financing.

Japan has contributed proactively to the Peacebuilding Fund (PBF) since its establishment in 2006. Announcing its aim to allocate 10 million US dollars in September 2016, Japan has contributed a total of 55.5 million US dollars (3 million US dollars in 2020) and ranks seventh among the major donor countries as of December 2020. In the address delivered by Prime Minister Suga at the General Debate of the United Nations General Assembly in 2020, he announced that Japan will continue to contribute to sustaining peace, including through the PBC, and engaging in strengthening institutions and building capacities.

---

• 2 Four countries of Guinea-Bissau, Central African Republic, Liberia and Burundi

C Human Resource Development

(A) The Program for Global Human Resource Development for Peacebuilding and Development

While civilian experts with a high level of skill and expertise have a substantial role to play in the field of post-conflict peacebuilding, the number of those who are capable of fulfilling the role is insufficient, and therefore, the development of relevant human resources remains a major challenge. Japan has been implementing programs for human resource development in order to cultivate civilian experts who can play a leading role in the field of peacebuilding and development. As of the end of the FY2020, more than 800 people have been trained. The trainees who completed the programs have gone on to play an active role in the field of peacebuilding and development in Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world, and have received high acclaim from both the UN and other countries.

In the FY2020 program, a training course for entry level human resources and a training course for mid-career practitioners with experience in the fields of peacebuilding and development were conducted.

(B) Training for United Nations Peacekeepers of Various Countries

Japan has been supporting peacekeepers from various countries participating in UN PKOs to enhance their capabilities. Since 2015, in conjunction with cooperative efforts among the UN, supporting member states, and personnel-dispatching countries, Japan has provided support for the Triangular Partnership Project (TPP), a framework for innovative cooperation aimed at addressing the urgent need to improve the capabilities of PKO personnel. For example, Japan has sent 172 SDF personnel and other individuals to Kenya and Uganda as instructors and conducted training on the operation of heavy engineering equipment for 277 people from eight African countries that expressed intentions to dispatch engineering units to UN PKOs. Since 2018, this project has been extended to Asia and the surrounding regions. Japan has dispatched 68 SDF and other personnel to Viet Nam and conducted training on the operation of heavy engineering equipment for 56 people from nine countries of Asia and the surrounding regions. Additionally, in October 2019 a Buddy First Aid program was begun in the medical field, a considerably problematic area for UN PKOs. Separate from this project, Japan also dispatches instructors and other personnel to Peacekeeping Training Centers in Asian and African nations while also providing them with financial assistance.

(3) Initiatives to Combat Security Threats

A Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism Measures

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has had profound effects not only on domestic politics, economy and society, but also the international political and economic order, and further, penetrated into people's behavior, mindsets and values. It also brought about major changes to the environment surrounding terrorism. Terrorists continue to carry out their terrorist activities in Asia and other parts of the world while adapting to the new social circumstances that have resulted from the COVID-19 pandemic, such as the weakening of governance as well as social divisions brought about by poverty and racial and ethnic issues becoming apparent. Furthermore, the increased dependence on information and communications technology by people around the world has motivated terrorists or terrorist organizations to spread extremism through the Internet and social media, as well as to conduct illegal behavior connected to terrorism in cyberspace, such as acquisition of funding for terrorism. There is a pressing need to respond comprehensively to these developments.

Based on the “G7 Action Plan on Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism” compiled at the G7 Ise-Shima Summit in 2016, Japan has implemented the following actions: (1) concrete measures to enhance counterterrorism capacity, which includes promoting the utilization of Interpol databases and measures against the funding of terrorism, (2) promotion of tolerance in communities through dialogues and other means, in order to prevent violent extremism, which is a root cause of terrorism, and (3) capacity building assistance to developing countries. In particular, it has been pointed out that the spread of various misinformation brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic may further motivate young people who depend on the Internet and social media to commit acts of violence. In light of this, it is more important than ever before to respond to violent extremism, and initiatives through public-private cooperation are also being implemented globally.

Cutting off the funding of terrorism is of great importance to preventing and eradicating it. Based on this recognition, in accordance with UN Security Council resolution 1373, Japan has implemented measures against terrorists or terrorist organizations including the assets freeze in cooperation with the U.S. and the other members of G7. In March, Japan designated three entities to add in the sanction list set out in this resolution.

In 2019, the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) lost their dominant territories in Iraq and Syria. In view of this, with respect to the issue of returning and relocating foreign terrorist fighters (FTFs), there are two very important issues: (1) taking measures for properly prosecuting, de-radicalizing, rehabilitating and socially integrating former terrorists and their families, and (2) strengthening people's awareness and resilience of communities at the grassroots level to prevent people from being drawn to violent extremism, especially young people. In addition, Japan is implementing projects through providing financial contribution to international organizations to address imminent issues, such as strengthening maritime security, preventing violent extremism and treating prisoners properly in prisons.

Japan provided contributions in the amount of 2.9 billion Japanese yen (supplementary budget for FY2019) to the projects implemented by international organizations and funds, including the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), and the United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism (UNOCT), by using their respective strengths and expertise effectively.

As an initiative that Japan has carried out continuously for the past 16 years, Japan also runs an exchange program inviting Islamic school teachers and providing opportunities to experience interfaith dialogue, school visits and cultural events in Japan. Japan will continue to implement such initiatives in the future, in order to help promote moderation and the creation of more tolerant societies that are receptive to different values.

Through bilateral and trilateral counterterrorism consultations, Japan also exchanges information on the world terrorism situations and affirms the strengthening of cooperation in the field of countering terrorism with other countries.

The Government of Japan has promoted counterterrorism measures in collaboration with relevant countries and organizations. Based on the view that information gathering is critical for combating terrorism, the Government established the Counter Terrorism Unit - Japan (CTU-J) in December 2015 and has been making concerted efforts to gather information with the Prime Minister's Office serving as the control tower. Regarding the incident in which a Japanese national being detained in Syria was safely released in October 2018, this outcome is owed to CTU-J playing a key role in requesting the cooperation of the countries concerned and handling the situation by leveraging Japan's information network. Following the series of terrorist bombings that occurred in Sri Lanka in April 2019, the Director General in charge of the region and others from CTU-J were immediately dispatched to the area to gather information. To fulfill the critical responsibility of securing the safety of Japanese nationals overseas, Japan will continue to further enhance its information gathering through the CTU-J and take all possible measures to counterterrorism to ensure the safety of Japanese nationals overseas.

B Criminal Justice Initiatives

The UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (“Congress”) and the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice are in charge of shaping policy on crime prevention and criminal justice in the international community. The 14th Congress was convened in March 2021 in Kyoto (“Kyoto Congress”). (The Kyoto Congress was scheduled to be held in April 2020 but was postponed due to the situation over the spread of COVID-19. In August 2020, the UN General Assembly decided that the 14th Congress will be held in March 2021.) Japan, as the chair of the Congress, led discussions on the draft political declaration to be adopted and advanced preparations for hosting the Congress in coordination with UNODC, and relevant international organizations and countries. In accordance with the overall theme, “Advancing crime prevention, criminal justice and the rule of law: towards the achievement of the 2030 Agenda,” the Kyoto Congress adopted a political declaration setting measures on crime prevention and criminal justice, as well as approaches for international cooperation.

Furthermore, Japan provides support to improve the prosecution capabilities of law-enforcement authorities and to enhance capacities related to measures against cybercrime in Southeast Asia by providing financial contributions to UNODC and through financial contributions from the Japan-ASEAN Integration Fund (JAIF).

In July 2017, Japan concluded the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), which establishes a global legal framework for promoting cooperation to prevent and combat transnational organized crime including terrorism more effectively. In accordance with the UNTOC, Japan advances international cooperation that includes international assistance in investigation.

C Anti-corruption Measures

As a State Party to the UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), which sets out provisions for international cooperation and measures to address corruption such as bribery and embezzlement of property by public officials, Japan has actively participated in discussions for the effective implementation of the UNCAC and strengthening international cooperation on preventing and combating corruption. In 2020, the General Assembly adopted a resolution in which it decided to convene the “Special session of the General Assembly against corruption” aimed at strengthening UNCAC initiatives, and Japan is working with other countries to advance preparations for the convention of this special session in 2021. In addition to the international cooperation based on the Convention, Japan has been conducting training for anti-corruption authorities in developing countries with the aim of strengthening their capabilities of investigation and prosecution through financial contributions to UNODC.

Within the context of the G20, the inaugural G20 Anti-corruption Ministers Meeting (in October) was convened online under the Saudi Presidency. State Minister for Foreign Affairs Uto Takashi represented Japan at this meeting, and delivered a speech on behalf of Japan as the former Presidency. In his speech, he announced that Japan will continue to promote the effective implementation of existing international conventions such as the UNCAC and the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, as well as to enhance international cooperation toward preventing and combatting corruption. The outcome documents adopted at this meeting including the G20 Anti-Corruption Ministerial Communiqué were annexed to the Leaders' Declaration of the G20 Riyadh Summit.

Japan is an active participant in the OECD Working Group on Bribery, which verifies the implementation of the Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions by each state party to prevent and combat the bribery of foreign public officials. Japan has also supported the ADB/OECD Anti-Corruption Initiative jointly promoted by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the OECD as part of its contributions toward enhancing anti-corruption measures in the region.

D Measures to Combat Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism

Regarding anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing ─ (AML/CFT) measures, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an international framework that establishes the international standards that countries should implement and conducts peer reviews to assess levels of implementation. As a founding member, Japan has actively participated in these discussions. In recent years, the FATF has been engaged in initiatives to prevent financing for the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and has issued the FATF statement that calls for the eradication of illegal financial activities by North Korea. In the Fourth Round of Mutual Evaluations of Japan, conducted by the FATF in 2019, Japan, under cooperation between the Government and the private sector, provided explanations on its AML/CFT measures to the FATF's assessors.

In addition, Japan takes measures to combat the financing of terrorism as a state party to the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, and also implements measures to freeze the assets of terrorists and terrorist organizations in accordance with the UN Security Council resolution 1373, and designated by the UN Security Council Taliban Sanctions Committee or the ISIL (Da'esh) and Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee. On March 31, Japan implemented asset freezing measures on three organizations based on the UN Security Council resolution 1373, and four individuals and five organizations designated by the ISIL (Da'esh) and Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee.

Furthermore, in order to support international initiatives to stamp out money laundering and block terrorism financing flows, Japan works with the UNODC to provide assistance for capacity building that includes the development of legal systems in South Asia, including Bangladesh, Maldives and Pakistan.

E Measures to Combat Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants

Japan has strengthened its domestic mechanisms to combat trafficking in persons which involves increasingly sophisticated and latent methods, while proactively providing assistance to developing countries in accordance with “Japan's 2014 Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons.” For example, in 2020, Japan continued to conduct training programs through JICA to deepen mutual understanding on human trafficking countermeasures (especially prevention, protection and support to restore the autonomy of victims) of stakeholders in Asian countries, including Japan, and to promote more effective regional cooperation. With respect to cooperation with international organizations, in 2020, through funding to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Japan continued to provide assistance for the safe repatriation of foreign victims of trafficking in persons protected in Japan and to carry out social rehabilitation support programs to prevent the repetition of trafficking after they return to their countries. Japan also funded training programs for law-enforcement authorities in Southeast Asian countries through projects organized by UNODC, UN Women and other organizations.

Japan also implemented support projects mainly toward ASEAN and African countries, with a view to preventing the smuggling of migrants.

As a state party to the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, and the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Japan has also further deepened its cooperation with other countries with a view to combating trafficking in persons and smuggling of migrants.

F Measures to Combat Illicit Drug Trafficking

Japan works in cooperation with UNODC to investigate and analyze synthetic drugs such as amphetamine-type stimulants and new psychoactive substances in the Asia-Pacific region, provide support for improving the container control capacity of law enforcement agencies at air and sea ports, and put in place measures against illicit drug trafficking, which is spreading across borders. In relation to Afghanistan, the world's largest region for the illegal cultivation of opium poppy, Japan has contributed 5.3 million US dollars to UNODC in order to strengthen border controls, promote alternative development to drug crop cultivation, and enhance capacity building of narcotics agents in cooperation with neighboring countries.

(4) The Oceans and Seas

Japan is surrounded by the sea on all sides, and is blessed with a vast exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and long coastlines. It is a maritime nation that has achieved economic growth through maritime trade and development of marine resources, and has pursued “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” which are upheld by maritime order governed by law and rules including freedom of navigation and overflight, rather than force, are essential for the peace and prosperity not only of Japan but also of the international community as a whole. To maintain and develop “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” Japan promotes initiatives to ensure safe maritime transport and cooperate on maritime security. Such initiatives are also important toward securing Japan's maritime interests, which form the basis for Japan's economic survival.

Japan is advancing efforts toward the realization of a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” that aims to bring stability and prosperity to the Indo-Pacific region, in particular, by strengthening maritime order in the region where important sea lanes are located.

A Order at Sea

(A) Basic Stance

There is an increasing number of cases where the interests of countries clash with each other from the perspective of securing maritime interests and national security. In particular, in the seas of Asia, there has been an increasing number of cases of tension arising from friction between countries, and the international community is closely monitoring these cases with much interest. Against this background, at the 13th Asia Security Summit (Shangri-La Dialogue) held in Singapore in May 2014, Japan shared the view that it was necessary to fully uphold the “Three Principles of the Rule of Law at Sea” (see 6(2) on page 268).

Japan also utilizes frameworks such as the G7 and ASEAN-related meetings including the East Asia Summit (EAS) and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)³ to actively send a message regarding the importance of “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” and Japan's stance on maritime security as well as the importance of international cooperation in this area. For example, at the EAS held in November, Prime Minister Suga expressed his full support for the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific (AOIP), that sets forth the rule of law, openness, freedom, transparency and inclusivity as ASEAN's principles of action. He also expressed that the AOIP shares many fundamental commonalities with the “Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP)” promoted by Japan and called on each country for their support. In addition, at the Japan-ASEAN Summit Meeting held in the same month, they adopted the Joint Statement of the 23rd ASEAN-Japan Summit on Cooperation on ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific and affirmed that the AOIP and FOIP share fundamental principles, and Japan confirmed that it will advance cooperation in accordance with the four priority areas⁴ set out in the AOIP, including maritime cooperation.

Among the frameworks related to ASEAN, the Expanded ASEAN Maritime Forum (EAMF) and the ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting on Maritime Security are frameworks that are focused on the maritime sector. At the Eighth EAMF hosted by Viet Nam in December, the delegates from Japan spoke about the importance of a maritime order based on the rule of law and Japan's initiatives toward the realization of a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific”, among other matters. An expert from Japan also made a presentation on the importance of the rule of law at sea based on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Japan also organizes workshops as an official event of the ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting on Maritime Security (see C (B)).

---

• 3 Regional cooperative frameworks with the participation of the 10 ASEAN countries as well as various countries, regions and organizations. In addition to the East Asia Summit (EAS) and ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), other examples include the ASEAN+3 (Japan, China, ROK) and Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM).
• 4 The four areas of maritime cooperation, connectivity, SDGs and economy.

(B) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Also known as the “Constitution for the Oceans,” UNCLOS is the very basis of maritime order governed by the rule of law. Japan regards maritime order with the Convention at the core as the cornerstone that safeguards Japan's maritime rights and interests while facilitating its maritime activities across the international community. As such, Japan actively contributes to discussions among concerned international organizations at conferences that include the Meetings of States Parties to the Convention, as well as to the sharing of ideas for achieving stability in the maritime legal order, in order to ensure that the convention will be even more widely applied and implemented appropriately (see 6(2) on page 268).

(C) Challenge to Japan's Maritime Sovereignty (Situation Surrounding the East China Sea) (see Chapter 1, 1-1(2) and Chapter 2, Section 2, 3 (1) B(D))

In the East China Sea, China Coast Guard vessels have continued to intrude into Japan's territorial sea around the Senkaku Islands in 2020. The duration of intrusion into the territorial waters and the number of days of navigation in the contiguous zone by China Coast Guard vessels reached a record high, and there were repeated incidents of China Coast Guard vessels approaching Japanese fishing vessels. Chinese military vessels and aircraft are also becoming increasingly active and expanding their operations. In addition, China has been continuing unilateral resource development in areas where the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the continental shelf are pending delimitation. In recent years, Japan has found numerous research projects being conducted by China in the waters surrounding Japan, such as the East China Sea, without Japan's consent. Given China's continued unilateral attempts to change the status quo in the East China Sea, Japan will carefully monitor the trends and movements around its air and sea spaces, continue to respond in a firm but calm manner while making claims that should be made, and at the same time, promote cooperation with the relevant countries including the U.S. in order to achieve peace and stability in the East China Sea.

(D) Challenge to the Maritime Order (Problems Surrounding the South China Sea) (see Chapter 1, 1-1(2) and Chapter 2, Section 2, 7 (2))

In the South China Sea, China has announced the establishment of new administrative districts called the “Nansha District” and the “Xisha District”. China has also been further conducting unilateral attempts to change the status quo and that run counter to the rule of law and openness, as well as attempting to create a fait accompli. These include the further militarization of reclaimed features. The international community, including Japan, has expressed serious concerns over these actions. China has also continued to take actions that heighten tensions in the region, including repeated military exercises and missile launches. Japan has consistently supported the full enforcement of the rule of law in the South China Sea, while focusing on ensuring freedom of navigation and overflight and ensuring the safety of sea lanes. Japan has also emphasized the importance of all parties involved with the South China Sea to work toward the peaceful settlement of disputes in accordance with international law, in particular the UNCLOS.

The issue with regard to the South China Sea is directly related to the peace and stability of the region and constitutes a legitimate concern of the international community. The issue is also an important matter of concern for Japan, which depends on marine transport for much of its resources and energy and which is a stakeholder that utilizes the South China Sea. Cooperation within the international community is of great importance in maintaining and developing “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” For this reason, Japan supports the U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations.⁵

---

• 5 The U.S. Government explains its “freedom of navigation” operations as efforts to challenge excessive claims that can infringe freedom of navigation and overflight, and the right of lawful uses of the sea. One example of this is the navigation of the U.S. Navy's Montgomery littoral combat ship through the waters around the Spratly Islands on January 25, 2020.

B Ensuring Safe Maritime Transport

Japan actively contributes to ensuring freedom of navigation and overflight and safe maritime transport through anti-piracy measures in Asia and Africa as well as close partnership and cooperation with other countries.

(A) Anti-piracy Measures in Asia

According to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB) of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the number of piracy cases in the seas of Southeast Asia was 53 in 2019 and 62 in 2020. In recent years, there have been some kidnap incidents against seafarers in the Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea, posing a threat to vessels navigating in these waters.

To encourage regional cooperation in coping with incidents such as acts of piracy in Asia, Japan took the initiative in formulating the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP), which entered into force in 2006. Each of the contracting parties provides information and cooperates on incidents such as acts of piracy in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore and other regions, via the Information Sharing Centre (ReCAAP-ISC) established in Singapore under the Agreement. Japan supports the activities of ReCAAP-ISC through personnel (dispatching the Executive Director and an Assistant Director) and financial contributions. Moreover, Japan is carrying out programs to enhance maritime law enforcement and surveillance capabilities of coastal states in Asia, which have been highly acclaimed in the international community.

(B) Anti-piracy Measures Off the Coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden

According to the IMB, the number of piracy and armed robbery cases (hereinafter referred to as “piracy cases”) off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden was 237 at its peak in 2011 but has since declined to a low level (three in 2018, zero in 2019, and zero in 2020). Despite efforts such as maritime operations of the navies and self-defense measures by merchant ships, the root causes of piracy off the coast of Somalia remain unresolved. Pirates off the coast of Somalia still have the intention and capability to carry out acts of piracy, which requires a careful watch on the situation.

Since 2009, Japan has been conducting anti-piracy operations, without any interruption, by deploying Maritime Self-Defense Force destroyers (with coast guard officers on board) and P-3C maritime patrol aircraft off the coast of Somalia and to the Gulf of Aden. To solve the root causes of piracy off the coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden, Japan has been making multi-layered efforts that include support for enhancing the maritime law enforcement capacity of Somalia and its neighboring countries and ensuring the stability of Somalia.

Japan has supported the establishment of Information Sharing Centres in Yemen, Kenya and Tanzania, as well as the construction of the Djibouti Regional Training Centre (DRTC), by contributing 15.53 million US dollars to a fund established by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Moreover, Japan has contributed 4.5 million US dollars to a trust fund to support Somalia and its neighboring countries. In addition, Japan provided two patrol vessels to the Djibouti Coast Guard in 2015 and has been supporting the enhancement of its capacity to secure maritime safety and security through JICA's technical cooperation. With a view to promoting the stability of Somalia, Japan has provided a total of 500 million US dollars since 2007 aimed at supporting improvement in basic services and public security through support for the police, as well as revitalization of the domestic economy through vocational training and job creation, among other measures.

(C) Anti-piracy Measures in the Gulf of Guinea

According to the IMB, the number of piracy and armed robbery cases (hereinafter referred to as “piracy cases”) in the Gulf of Guinea has remained at a high level in recent years, with 64 cases in 2019 and 84 cases in 2020. Many of these occurred in the territorial waters of coastal states, which face the challenge of the need of strengthening their maritime law enforcement capabilities. Japan has provided coastal states with capacity building assistance through training conducted by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Japan has also been involved in discussions in the international community through participation in the “G7++ Group of Friends of the Gulf of Guinea”⁶, a cooperative and coordination mechanism to address illegal maritime activities in the Gulf of Guinea.

---

• 6 G7++ Group of Friends of Gulf of Guinea: In addition to the G7, other participants include non-G7 countries and international organizations

C Cooperation on Maritime Security

(A) Capacity Building Assistance

Japan provides seamless assistance to various countries for capacity building in the area of maritime security, through cooperation between MOFA, the Ministry of Defense and Self-Defense Forces, the Japan Coast Guard and other agencies. The Basic Plan on Ocean Policy approved by the Cabinet in 2018 also affirmed that Japan, in collaboration with allied nations, friendly nations and international organizations, will promote initiatives to strengthen maritime disciplines including equipment and technology cooperation and capacity building assistance to the coastal states along the Sea Lanes of Communications.

MOFA provides capacity building assistance to law enforcement agencies and other organizations in developing countries, through the provision of equipment such as patrol vessels and human resource development implemented through bilateral ODA. As an example of collaboration with international organizations, Japan contributed about 3 million US dollars toward the Maritime Law Enforcement Capacity Building Project implemented by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) under its Global Maritime Crime Programme (GMCP), with the aim of addressing the diverse illegal maritime activities that have been increasing further in recent years. Through this Project training and workshops for practitioners involved in measures to address illegal maritime activities were conducted.

The Ministry of Defense and Self-Defense Forces have provided capacity building in the area of maritime security to Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka to date. Through these support initiatives, it is strengthening cooperative relations with partners that share strategic interests with Japan.

To provide capacity building assistance to coast guard authorities of coastal states of the Indo-Pacific, the Japan Coast Guard dispatches highly skilled Japan Coast Guard officials with expert knowledge as well as the Japan Coast Guard Mobile Cooperation Team (MCT), a special team that provides capacity building support, to the coast guard authorities of each country. In addition, the Japan Coast Guard also invites the coast guard officials from each country to Japan where it conducts training for them. It also administers the Maritime Safety and Security Policy Program, a Master's level education program on maritime policy that accepts coast guard officials from Asian countries. Through this program, the Japan Coast Guard contributes to the development of human resources with advanced practical and applied knowledge, knowledge on international law and international relations as well as research into the relevant case studies, the ability to conduct analysis and make proposals, and international communication skills.

When providing such capacity building assistance, Japan cooperates closely with the above mentioned international organizations as well as like-minded countries including the U.S., Australia, India, the UK and France.

(B) Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA)

Consolidating and sharing a wide range of maritime information and understanding maritime domain effectively and efficiently are vital toward the realization of “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” Japan places great importance on international cooperation in such maritime domain awareness (MDA) initiatives.

In recent years, progress has been made in the Indo-Pacific region to establish information sharing centers for the consolidation, analysis and sharing of maritime information, such as phenomena related to the safety of navigation and ship information. Japan has dispatched personnel (Executive Director and Assistant Director) to the ReCAAP-ISC based in Singapore, as well as liaison officers to the Information Fusion Centre (IFC) established by the Republic of Singapore Navy and the Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) established by the Indian Navy. Furthermore, the authorities of Japan and India exchange information based on the Implementing Arrangement for Deeper Cooperation Between the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force and the Indian Navy, signed on the occasion of the Japan-India Summit Meeting held in October 2018.

Japan also organizes the “ARF Workshop on International Cooperation on Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA)” as an official event of the ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting on Maritime Security. In the Second Workshop, co-hosted with Viet Nam in February 2020, active discussions were held on matters such as the utilization of MDA to address maritime challenges such as piracy, terrorism and illegal fishing, cooperative systems between the relevant domestic agencies, and international cooperation initiatives.

(5) Cyber

During the COVID-19 pandemic, remote working and education rapidly became popular, while cyberspace has become an indispensable activity base for economies and societies. On the other hand, the scale and impact of cyberattacks have been growing year after year, making cybersecurity a pressing issue.

Against this backdrop, Japan is promoting cyber diplomacy based on the three pillars of “Promotion of the rule of law in cyberspace,” “Development of confidence-building measures,” and “Cooperation on capacity building.”

“Promotion of the rule of law in cyberspace” maintains that existing international law is applicable to cyber activities. From this viewpoint, Japan participates actively in the United Nations Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) and the UN Open-ended Working Group (OEWG), and contributes to discussions on how international law should be applied and the norms that countries should comply with. For example, at the OEWG in June, six countries including Japan expressed grave concern on cyberattacks against healthcare services and facilities, and proposed to consider the medical services and medical facilities as critical infrastructure, like the electricity and water sectors, which should be provided with appropriate protection. At the OEWG Multi-stakeholder Meeting held in December, Japan co-chaired the session on international law. Many participants, in particular representatives from academia, government and private corporations, were invited to engage in discussions at this session, which contributed to enhancing understanding on the application of international law in cyberspace.

Japan is also actively involved in the implementation of norms in cyberspace. For example, in September, it was included as one of the proposing countries for the formulation of the Program of Action, which covers contents such as the convention of regular meetings focused on the implementation of norms for state behavior.

In addition, Japan collaborates with other like-minded countries in taking initiatives to deter malicious cyber activities. In December 2018, Japan issued a statement resolutely condemning the long-running, widespread attacks perpetrated against private organizations, academic institutions and other organizations by the China-based hacking group APT10. Japan participated in a ministerial-level meeting on cybersecurity hosted by the U.S. in September 2019, and also partook in a joint statement on cooperation toward encouraging the acceptance of responsibility by states acting against frameworks on responsible state behavior in cyberspace. Concerning countermeasures against cybercrime, as the first country from Asia to become a party to the Convention on Cybercrime (Budapest Convention), which is the only multilateral treaty on the use of cyberspace, Japan participates actively in the Plenaries of the Cybercrime Convention Committee and the preparation of a draft Additional Protocol to the Budapest Convention that seeks to improve the effectiveness of investigative cooperation, and also puts efforts into adding more nations to the treaty, especially nations in Asia.

Regarding “Development of confidence-building measures,” gaining a better understanding of one another's views and enhancing mutual confidence are critical to prevent unforeseen situations stemming from cyber activities. With this purpose in mind, Japan holds consultations and dialogues with 14 countries and regions, and in 2020, has continued with initiatives to develop confidence-building measures mainly through online exchanges of opinions with members from cyber-related sectors of various countries. Within the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) framework, Japan also leads discussions at inter-sessional meetings on cybersecurity as co-chair.

Regarding “Cooperation on capacity building,” due to the nature of cyberspace, the lack of incident handling capacity of some countries and regions may pose a risk to the entire world. Therefore, capacity building in developing countries is important for ensuring Japan's security, as well. Japan has been providing support, including the capacity building of the Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT)⁷ and the relevant administrative and investigative agencies, mainly in ASEAN countries. For example, in October, the 13th ASEAN-Japan Cybersecurity Policy Meeting was held in Tokyo as an online meeting. At the meeting, Japan and ASEAN member states confirmed the progress of various collaborative activities, and agreed to a new collaborative activity for promoting joint industry-government-academia collaboration to enhance cyber security throughout the ASEAN region.

Japan will continue to provide strategic and effective assistance through the efforts of the entire Government.

---

• 7 A general term which refers to a group that deals with computer security incidents

(6) Outer Space

In recent years, outer space has become congested due to the diversified use of outer space and increasing number of countries using space. In addition, the increase of space debris due to factors such as Anti-Satellite (ASAT) tests and satellite collisions poses a growing risk to the sustainable and stable use of outer space.

In order to cope with this situation, Japan has been engaging in initiatives such as strengthening Space Situational Awareness (SSA) and mission assurance for space systems, while working on international rule-making and international space cooperation, which includes cooperation with other countries, notably its ally, the U.S.

A Realizing the Rule of Law in Outer Space

Based on environmental changes concerning outer space, the international community has been discussing international rule-making concerning outer space activities in a variety of ways. Japan has also been actively involved in these discussions with the aim of establishing and strengthening the rule of law in outer space.

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) is a permanent committee established under the UN General Assembly, and engages in discussions on matters such as legal issues related to civil space activities. Concerning the Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities (LTS Guidelines) adopted during COPUOS held in June 2019, Japan will actively contribute to the discussions in the working group including the implementation of the LTS Guidelines. Japan is also making contributions in the aspect of human resources, such as a Japanese space law expert serving as Chair of the COPUOS Legal Subcommittee in 2020 and 2021. In February, Japan signed a Joint Statement on Space Debris with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), which serves as the secretariat of COPUOS.

In the First Committee of the UN General Assembly convened in November, Japan, the UK and other member states jointly proposed a draft resolution seeking international discussions on responsible behaviors in outer space and it was adopted with the support of 150 countries. Thereafter, the draft resolution was adopted at the UN General Assembly convened in December, with the support of 164 countries.

With regard to the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS), a Group of Governmental Experts was established by a resolution submitted to the UN General Assembly in 2017. Meetings of the Group were held in January 2018 and March 2019 and attended by experts from 25 countries, including Japan.

B International Dialogues and Consultations on Outer Space

Japan promotes dialogues and consultations on outer space primarily with major space-faring nations and nations in the Asia-Pacific region.

With the U.S., the Seventh Meeting of the Japan-U.S. Comprehensive Dialogue on Space was held in Tokyo in August, during which both sides exchanged information on their space policies. They also comprehensively exchanged views on a wide range of topics including the civil space and security, and issued a joint statement as the outcome of the Dialogue. This Dialogue also presented an opportunity for the two sides to reaffirm their high-level commitment toward bilateral space cooperation. This was notably demonstrated by the courtesy call to Prime Minister Abe paid by General John W “Jay” Raymond, Chief of Space Operations of the U.S. Space Force, a special participant of the Dialogue, as the first such meeting between Prime Minister Abe and a foreign high-ranking official since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, in December, the Governments of Japan and the U.S. exchanged Notes concerning cooperation over hosted payloads (mission instruments loaded onto other entities' satellite), including the loading of U.S. Space Situational Awareness (SSA) sensors onto the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite “Michibiki” (QZS)-6 and QZS-7, scheduled to commence operations in FY2023.

In November, Japan held a preparatory meeting with France online ahead of the Third Japan-France Comprehensive Dialogue on Space.

With respect to multinational meetings, the Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) Online 2020 was held in November, co-organized by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) along with space organizations from Singapore, Viet Nam and Indonesia, to discuss measures for expanding space business, sustainable space activities for the future, and contribution to social issues.

C Space Science and Exploration

The progress of space exploration and application for peaceful purposes is a common benefit for all humankind, and is also significant in terms of diplomacy. In December, Japan's asteroid explorer “Hayabusa2” successfully completed a mission to bring back samples from the asteroid “Ryugu” to Earth. This achievement of bringing back samples from an asteroid is a successor of “Hayabusa,” which returned to Earth in 2010, and attracted the attention of the international community. Space technology brings dreams and hope to many people, and at the same time, is the symbol of the scientific and technological capabilities of a country. Hence, Japan's achievements in space science and exploration contribute to enhancing its international presence.

In October 2019, Japan decided to participate in international space exploration under the proposal of the U.S. (Artemis program). In July, the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan and the Administrator for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) signed a Joint Exploration Declaration of Intent for Lunar Cooperation (JEDI), and announced the details of cooperation between Japan and the U.S. In October, eight countries including Japan and the U.S. signed the Artemis Accords, which set out a political commitment to establish principles for creating a safe and transparent environment in promoting outer space activities, including the Artemis program. In December, Japan and the U.S. concluded a Memorandum of Understanding concerning Cooperation on the Civil Lunar Gateway, a human outpost in the lunar vicinity that will be developed as a part of the Artemis program.

The International Space Station (ISS) is an epic project in which 15 countries participate and has become a symbol of international cooperation regarding outer space. The ISS/Japanese Experiment Module “Kibo” is capable of deploying cube satellites, and is also used to deploy satellites on behalf of many emerging and developing countries with the aim of providing support for capacity building in the space field. In April, Guatemala's first satellite was deployed through the KiboCUBE program, a cooperative framework between JAXA and UNOOSA that provides developing countries with the opportunity to deploy CubeSats from Kibo. Another example is the Kibo Robot Programming Challenge (Kibo-RPC), a new educational program for students from the Asia-Pacific region who represent the next generation, which was held from June to October.

D Overseas Development of Japanese Space Industry

Leveraging the growth of the expanding overseas commercial markets of space, largely in emerging nations, is important for the Japanese space industry. The public and private sectors of Japan are working in cooperation with the relevant ministries and agencies to promote the entry of Japan's space industry into overseas markets by such means as high-level campaigns and mobilizing diplomatic missions.

In July, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) launched its first Mars explorer, “HOPE,” using the Japanese H-IIA rocket. After a Japanese corporation concluded the contract in 2016 for the launch of this spacecraft, the Cabinet Office, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, and Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry of Japan signed a Memorandum of Cooperation with the UAE Space Agency. Based on this Memorandum of Cooperation, the public and private sectors worked together on capacity-building programs such as inviting young UAE engineers to Japan to participate in educational programs on space exploration and space engineering, and providing opportunities for utilization of the ISS/Japanese Experiment Module “Kibo.” As the young UAE engineers who benefitted from these programs have played active roles in government agencies and the space industry in UAE thereafter, such initiatives also contribute to strengthening space cooperation in the medium- to long-term.

E International Cooperation Through the Utilization of Space Technology

Outer space is a unique space that enables the constant observation of the Earth's atmosphere, land and seas. In recent years, there have been growing expectations toward the role of space technology in resolving global issues such as climate change, forest conservation, water resources management, disaster prevention and food security. Japan promotes international cooperation through utilization of space technology, which is one of Japan's strengths in the international arena, and contributes to the achievement of the SDGs.

For example, the world's first greenhouse gases observing satellite “IBUKI” has been capturing information on the concentration of greenhouse gases on Earth for more than 10 years. The 2019 Refinement to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories defined, for the first time, the utilization of satellite data to improve the precision of emissions from each country and included examples from the utilization of IBUKI. In addition, the JICA-JAXA Forest Early Warning System in the Tropics (JJ-FAST), developed for the conservation of forests that serve as an important “carbon sink” for the absorption of greenhouse gases, uses data from the Advanced Land Observing Satellite-2 “DAICHI-2” to provide free information on forest changes in 77 countries around the world. This system is used for purposes such as detecting illegal logging. In the oil spill accident that occurred off the coasts of Mauritius in August, information analyzed by the Japan Coast Guard based on images obtained from DAICHI-2 and other observation sources, were provided to the Government of Mauritius through the Japan Disaster Relief (JDR) teams that were dispatched to the site of the accident.

Japan also provides, at no charge, the Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP) system, which utilizes multiple satellites to observe the global rainfall situation. This system is applied to wide range of uses, including rainfall situation monitoring, disaster management and agriculture, in 136 countries and regions around the world. Furthermore, Japan took the lead in launching “Sentinel Asia,” an initiative to provide free observational satellite information during disasters to contribute to disaster management in the Asia-Pacific region. To date, this project has responded to more than 300 emergency requests from 28 countries.

(7) Economic Security

In recent years, innovative civilian technologies that could potentially be diverted to military uses have emerged, and some countries have utilized economic dependency to secure their own strategic interests. Against the backdrop of such trends, there is a growing need to reconsider, from the perspective of national security, events that have till now been treated as a part of laissez-faire economic activities and left to workings of market principles and economic policies (see the Special Feature on page 244). Such efforts have been gaining traction not only in Japan, but also in other major countries in recent years.

For example, the National Security Strategy of the U.S., formulated in 2017, cited President Trump's words, “Economic security is national security,” and championed the values established by the U.S., while establishing “Lead in Research, Technology, Invention, and Innovation” and “Promote and Protect the U.S. National Security Innovation Base” as key issues to be addressed. To that end, the U.S. is advancing various initiatives. Furthermore, the National Strategy for Critical and Emerging Technologies, formulated in October 2020, sought to promote the development of a science and technology workforce and investment in research and development in the context of national security, through cooperation with like-minded allies and partners. At the same time, with a view to protecting its technology advantage, it also incorporated efforts to ensure that competitors do not use illicit means to acquire United States intellectual property, as well as appropriate export controls and the implementation of investment screening policies.

The European Union (EU) and European countries such as the UK, France and Germany have also demonstrated, through their security policies, a recognition of the need to overcome vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure and support technological innovation, in order to secure their own safety and prosperity. In October, the European Council reached an agreement on a revised regulation setting out the EU regime for the control of exports of dual-use items, and on the policy to tighten measures on the transfers of intangible technology via researchers and other channels. With regard to investment screening, an EU-wide investment screening mechanism commenced operation from November, while information sharing among member states was strengthened with respect to investments from outside of the region and related to sensitive technology and critical infrastructure. In addition, in the “Horizon 2020” framework that offers funding for research and innovation, the EU allocated a total of approximately 80 billion Euros (10 trillion Japanese yen) from 2014 to 2020 toward support for areas that member states find difficult to finance on their own, such as the development of research infrastructure, high-risk collaborative research, and addressing social issues through innovation.

With regard to Australia, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade has been working on its International Cyber and Critical Technology Engagement Strategy since April, and the decision was made in October to establish the Critical Technologies Policy Coordination Office in the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Amendments to the Foreign Acquisitions and Takeovers Act were passed by the Parliament of Australia in December and enforced the following month. The amended law tightened screening measures for investments in land and businesses related to sensitive national security, and made it mandatory to seek prior approval from the government to establish businesses or invest in businesses that provide goods and services in areas such as national defense and intelligence, regardless of the value of the investment.

China has established the goal of completing its socialist modernization project to make China a “great country” by 2049, and set out a clear timeline under the “Made in China 2025” strategy. Based on this timeline, it is advancing efforts to strengthen the real economy and to acquire and develop advanced technology to support this economy. In the article titled “Major Issues Concerning China's Strategies for Mid-to-Long-Term Economic and Social Development,” published in the CPC Central Committee journal Qiushi in October 2020, President Xi Jinping set out the new strategy, among others, of further expanding the middle-income group that currently stands at around 400 million people, while establishing an autonomous domestic circulation and drawing global resources toward China, as well as making global industrial supply chains more dependent on China, and keeping to the principle of putting China first in the real economy in sectors such as food and manufacturing. Against the backdrop of this strategy, at the 5th Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee convened in October, the emphasis was placed on the need to enhance economic self-sufficiency including making the transition to an economic structure led by domestic demand, the development of a supply chain that is not impacted by external pressures, self-reliance and self-strengthening in science and technology, and the strengthening of efforts to ensure the national economic security. Furthermore, China has also made rapid advancements in the establishment of its domestic legal system in recent years, such as laws related to cybersecurity and data security as well as encryption (enforced in January), and export control law (enforced in December).

In light of these trends in other countries, Japan will continue to strengthen initiatives in the new policy area of economic security from the perspective of working proactively toward the development of a free and open international order based on the rule of law, while positioning the Japan-U.S. Alliance as the cornerstone of its diplomacy and security, with a view to ensuring the survival and prosperity of Japan.