4 Disarmament and Non-proliferation and the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy

(1) Nuclear Disarmament

As the only country to have ever suffered atomic bombings during wartime, Japan has the responsibility to lead the international efforts to realize a world without nuclear weapons.

The global security environment has been severe in recent years. As seen in the situation surrounding the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons that entered into force in January 2021, there exists an apparent divergence of views on how best to advance nuclear disarmament, a divergence that exists not only between nuclear-weapon and non-nuclear-weapon states but also among non-nuclear-weapon states that are exposed to the threat of nuclear weapons and those that are not. Considering these circumstances, it is necessary to persistently advance realistic measures while bridge-building between states with divergent views, in order to promote nuclear disarmament.

Japan continues to pursue bridge building between states with divergent views with the aim of realizing a world without nuclear weapons. It has done this through such actions and frameworks as holding meetings of the Group of Eminent Persons for Substantive Advancement of Nuclear Disarmament, submitting the Resolution on Nuclear Disarmament to the UN General Assembly, and the Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI) and bilateral consultations. Moreover, Japan intends to promote the entering into force of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and encourage states to commence negotiations on a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT), build up realistic efforts that nuclear-weapon states can also participate in, such as discussions and exercises toward the realization of effective nuclear disarmament verification, and continue maintaining and strengthening the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) regime.

Japan shares the goal of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which entered into force on January 22, 2021, to bring about the total elimination of nuclear weapons. On the other hand, while it is vital to advance nuclear disarmament with the involvement of nuclear-weapon states in order to realize a world without nuclear weapons, this Treaty does not currently have the support of nuclear-weapon states. Moreover, it also does not have the support of many non-nuclear-weapon states that are exposed to the threat of nuclear weapons.

As Japan has responsibility to protect the lives and properties of its citizens, in the face of the deterioration of the security environment surrounding Japan, the Government of Japan considers it necessary to address the real security threat in an appropriate manner, including through maintaining and strengthening deterrence, while realistically pursuing a path for advancing nuclear disarmament. In light of Japan's position as such, it has no intention of signing this Treaty.

A Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

Japan places great importance on maintaining and strengthening the NPT regime, which is the cornerstone of the international nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation regime. NPT Review Conferences have been held once every five years with the aim of achieving the goals of the NPT and ensuring compliance with its provisions, and discussions that reflect the international situation of the time have been held since the NPT entered into force in 1970. However, at the 9th Review Conference held in 2015, discussions failed to arrive at a consensus regarding the establishment of a Middle East Zone Free of Nuclear Weapons and Other Weapons of Mass Destruction and other issues, and the Conference ended without a consensus document.

2020 is a milestone year, marking 50 years since the NPT entered into force and 75 years since the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A Statement by the Foreign Minister was released on March 5 to coincide with the entering into force of the NPT. In the statement, Foreign Minister Motegi expressed appreciation for the NPT's invaluable contribution to the consolidation and maintenance of international peace and security as the cornerstone of the international nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation regime, and spoke about the need to uphold and strengthen the NPT regime. Although the 10th NPT Review Conference scheduled for 2020 was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic (as of January 2021, it is expected to be convened in August 2021), Japan will continue to propose and implement realistic and practical efforts toward achieving a meaningful outcome at the upcoming NPT Review Conference.

B Group of Eminent Persons for Substantive Advancement of Nuclear Disarmament

The “Group of Eminent Persons for Substantive Advancement of Nuclear Disarmament” (EPG; consisting of 17 experts from countries of different positions, including Japan) was launched by Japan in 2017 with the goals of rebuilding trust among countries with divergent views on how to proceed with nuclear disarmament and of obtaining recommendations that will contribute to the substantive advancement of nuclear disarmament. The Group held a total of five meetings leading up to July 2019, and the concrete outcomes were submitted to the second and third sessions of the Preparatory Committee for the 2020 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Review Conference. In October 2019, the Chair's Report, summarizing discussions at all five meetings of the Group held to date, was published. Thereafter, Japan established “The Track 1.5 Meeting for Substantive Advancement of Nuclear Disarmament” with the participation of experts and government officials from both nuclear-weapon and non-nuclear-weapon states, for the purpose of following up with, and further developing, the discussions of the EPG. The inaugural Track 1.5 Meeting was convened in March 2020, when discussions were held on transparency, nuclear risk reduction, and nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation education as the concrete nuclear disarmament measures that the international community should address immediately.

C The Non-proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI)

The NPDI, a group of 12 non-nuclear-weapon states from various regions established under the leadership of Japan and Australia in 2010 has served as a bridge between nuclear-weapon and non-nuclear-weapon states. It leads efforts in the field of nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation through its realistic and practical proposals with the involvement of the foreign ministers of its member states. The NPDI has actively contributed to the NPT review process through realistic and practical proposals, including the submission of 19 working papers to the 9th NPT Review process and 15 to the 10th NPT Review process.

At the 10th NPDI Ministerial Meeting, co-organized by Japan and Australia and held during the G20 Aichi-Nagoya Foreign Ministers' Meeting in November 2019, an NPDI Joint Ministerial Statement was issued concerning the importance of maintaining and strengthening the NPT regime. In April 2020, the NPDI issued a joint message at the senior officials' level, stating that the NPDI will continue to make efforts to serve as a bridge-builder, and that it remains committed to using the time before the 10th NPT to deepen its positive engagement with nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear-weapon states.

D Initiatives Through the United Nations (Resolution on Nuclear Disarmament)

Since 1994, Japan has submitted draft resolutions on the elimination of nuclear weapons to the UN General Assembly. They incorporate issues of the time related to nuclear disarmament, as well as concrete and practical measures toward the total elimination of nuclear weapons. As a means to facilitate the building of a common ground between nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear-weapon states, the 2020 resolution focused on joint courses of action to be taken immediately by the international community toward nuclear disarmament as well as the importance of future-oriented dialogues. The resolution was adopted with the broad support of 139 countries at the First Committee of the UN General Assembly in November and of 150 countries at the Plenary Meeting of the UN General Assembly in December. The states supporting the resolution have divergent views, and include nuclear-weapon states such as the U.S. and UK as well as many non-nuclear-weapon states. While other resolutions that comprehensively addressed nuclear disarmament were submitted to the General Assembly in addition to Japan's draft resolution on the total elimination of nuclear weapons, Japan has enjoyed support among a larger number of states. For more than 20 years, Japan's resolutions have continued to enjoy the broad support of states with divergent views in the international community.

E Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)

Japan attaches great importance to promoting the entry into force of the CTBT as a realistic measure of nuclear disarmament where both nuclear-weapon and non-nuclear-weapon states can participate. Japan also has continued diplomatic efforts to encourage countries that have not signed or ratified the CTBT, including those countries whose ratifications are required for its entry-into-force. In 2020, despite original plans to hold the Ministerial Meeting of the Friends of the CTBT during the UN General Assembly High-Level Week in September, in light of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the foreign ministers of the respective Friends of the CTBT countries presented video messages in place of the meeting. In his video message, Foreign Minister Motegi stated that this year marks the 75th anniversary of the first ever use of nuclear weapons, and that the tragedies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki must never be repeated. He also underscored the need to promote the entry into force of the CTBT and strengthen its monitoring capabilities to deter nuclear tests.

F Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty⁸ (FMCT: Cut-off Treaty)

A Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) has great significance for both disarmament and non-proliferation as it would prevent the emergence of new states possessing nuclear-weapons by banning the production of fissile materials such as highly-enriched uranium and plutonium for weapons purposes. At the same time, it limits the production of nuclear weapons by nuclear-weapon states. For many years, however, no agreement has been reached on commencing negotiations for the treaty in the Conference on Disarmament (CD). Consequently, it was decided at the 71st UN General Assembly in December 2016 to establish the FMCT High-Level Experts Preparatory Group, and Japan has been actively participating in the Group's discussions. Through discussions at the 1st meeting (August 2017) and 2nd meeting (June 2018), a report was adopted that includes possible options for the outline of a future treaty and content to consider in negotiations. The report was submitted to the 73rd UN General Assembly in 2018. Japan will continue actively contributing to FMCT discussions.

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• 8 A treaty concept that aims to prevent the increase in the number of nuclear weapons by prohibiting the production of fissile materials (such as enriched uranium and plutonium) that are used as materials to produce nuclear weapons and other nuclear explosive devices.

G Disarmament and Non-proliferation Education

As the only country to have ever suffered atomic bombings, Japan places great importance on education in disarmament and non-proliferation. Specifically, Japan has been actively engaged in efforts to convey the realities of the devastation caused by the use of nuclear weapons to people both within Japan and overseas, through activities such as translating the testimonies of atomic bomb survivors into other languages, invitations for young diplomats from other countries to go to Hiroshima and Nagasaki through the UN Programme of Fellowships on Disarmament⁹ (suspended in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic), providing assistance for holding atomic bomb exhibitions overseas¹⁰, and designating atomic bomb survivors who have given testimonies of their atomic bomb experiences as “Special Communicators for a World without Nuclear Weapons.”

Additionally, as the atomic bomb survivors age, it is becoming increasingly important to pass on the realities of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings across generations and borders. To this end, from 2013 to 2020, Japan conferred the designation of “Youth Communicators for a World without Nuclear Weapons” for more than 400 youths in Japan and overseas.

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• 9 Implemented since 1983 by the UN to nurture nuclear disarmament experts. Program participants are invited to Hiroshima and Nagasaki and taught the realities of atomic bombing through such means as museum tours and talks by victims about their experiences in the atomic bombings.
• 10 Opened as a permanent exhibition about the atomic bomb in New York, U.S.; Geneva, Switzerland; and Vienna, Austria, in cooperation with Hiroshima City and Nagasaki City.

H Initiatives Toward Future Arms Control

In the area of nuclear disarmament, in addition to initiatives through multilateral frameworks such as the NPT, the U.S. and Russia have also concluded and maintained a bilateral arms control treaty. On February 3, 2021, the two countries agreed on an extension to the Treaty between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (New START Treaty). Japan welcomed this extension from the viewpoint that the New START Treaty demonstrates important progress in nuclear disarmament between the U.S. and Russia.

On the other hand, in view of the recent situation surrounding nuclear weapons, it is important to establish a new arms control mechanism that encompasses a wider range of countries beyond the U.S. and Russia, while also including a broader range of weapon systems. For example, Japan has been communicating with China on this issue at various levels. At the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) Ministerial Meeting held in September, Foreign Minister Motegi, joining hands with other countries, expressed his desire to encourage China to continue its efforts to fulfil its responsibility as a nuclear weapon state and an important player in the international community, and engage in the bilateral dialogue between the U.S and China on arms control.

Furthermore, the Draft Resolution on Nuclear Disarmament submitted by Japan and adopted in the Plenary Meeting of the UN General Assembly in 2020 also stresses the importance of transparency among nuclear-weapon states, and reaffirms the special responsibility of nuclear-weapon states to initiate arms control dialogues on effective measures to prevent nuclear arms racing.

(2) Non-proliferation and Nuclear Security

A Japan's Efforts of Non-Proliferation

To ensure Japan's security and to maintain peace and security of the international community, Japan has been making efforts concerning non-proliferation policy. The goal of such a policy is to prevent the proliferation of weapons that could threaten Japan or the international community (weapons of mass destruction such as nuclear weapons and biological/chemical weapons, as well as missiles with the ability to deliver those weapons and conventional weapons) and of related materials and technologies used to develop such weapons. In today's international community, economic growth in emerging countries has enabled a growing capacity to produce and supply weapons in those countries as well as materials that could be diverted to the development of such weapons. Meanwhile, methods for procuring these materials are becoming more sophisticated, due in part to increasing complexity in means of distribution. Furthermore, the emergence of new technologies is spurring a growing potential for private sector technologies to be diverted to uses for military purposes, and increasing the proliferation risk of weapons that could pose a threat and of related materials and technologies. Under these circumstances, Japan has been implementing its non-proliferation policies, focusing on maintaining and strengthening international non-proliferation regimes and rules, taking appropriate non-proliferation measures domestically, and promoting close coordination with and capacity building support for other nations.

Japan's three main measures of preventing proliferation are (1) IAEA safeguards, (2) export control, and (3) the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI)

Safeguards refer to verification activities conducted in accordance with safeguards agreements between states and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and aim to ensure that nuclear energy will not be diverted from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. As a designated member of the IAEA Board of Governors¹¹, Japan has made various efforts, including supporting the IAEA. For example, based on the view that the IAEA safeguards are at the core of the international nuclear non-proliferation regime, Japan enhances the understanding and implementation capabilities of safeguards of other countries. Japan also encourages other countries to conclude the Additional Protocol (AP)¹² to the IAEA safeguards agreements. Furthermore, Japan actively contributes to regional and international efforts to strengthen safeguards through efforts such as attending the 11th Annual Meeting of the Asia-Pacific Safeguards Network (APSN) held in December (as an online event), which aims to strengthen safeguards in the Asia-Pacific region, and acting as facilitator in the session on safeguards implementation during the COVID-19 outbreak and human resource development.

IAEA Director General Rafael Mariano Grossi, who assumed office in December 2019, visited Japan in February as a guest of the Minister of Foreign Affairs. During his visit, he paid a courtesy call to Prime Minister Abe and held a meeting with Foreign Minister Motegi. Japan and the IAEA shared the view that both sides would work together to build a further cooperative relationship. Japan will continue providing utmost support to Director General Grossi, who has extensive knowledge and experience, and will continue to work with other member countries to strengthen the role of the IAEA.

Export control is a useful measure in the so-called supply-side regulation toward countries of proliferation concern, terrorist organizations, and other entities attempting to acquire or distribute weapons or related materials or technologies. There are currently four export control frameworks (international export control regimes) in the international community. Japan has participated in all of them since their inception, engaging in international coordination and practicing strict export control. Each of the four regimes, namely the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) for nuclear weapons, the Australia Group (AG) for chemical and biological weapons, the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) for missiles,¹³ and the Wassenaar Arrangement (WA) for conventional weapons, establishes a list of dual-use items and technologies which contribute to weapons development. To ensure the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and conventional weapons, participating countries to the regimes implement export control measures on the listed items and technologies in accordance with their domestic laws. The export control regimes also exchange information concerning trends in countries of proliferation concern and are engaged in outreach activities to non-participating countries to the regimes in order to strengthen their export control. Japan actively engages in such international rule-making and application of rules, and makes various contributions. Additionally, in terms of international contributions in nuclear non-proliferation, the Permanent Mission of Japan to the International Organizations in Vienna serves as the Point of Contact of the NSG.

Furthermore, Japan seeks to complement the activities of the international export control regimes by actively participating in the activities of the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI).¹⁴ Through efforts such as hosting the maritime interdiction exercise “Pacific Shield 18”¹⁵ in July 2018, Japan is working to enhance coordination among countries and concerned institutions.

Japan also holds Asia Senior-level Talks on Non-Proliferation (ASTOP)¹⁶ and Asian Export Control¹⁷ every year in order to promote a better understanding of the non-proliferation regimes and strengthen regional efforts, mainly in Asian countries. At the 16th ASTOP, held in December (as an online event), the EU participated for the first time, and discussions were conducted concerning North Korea's nuclear and missile programs and the strengthening of export control. 33 countries and regions participated in the 27th Asian Export Control Seminar, held in February. At the seminar, participants held discussions concerning measures to strengthen the effectiveness of export control with a view to capacity building for export control personnel in Asian countries and regions.

Furthermore, with regards to the implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1540,¹⁸ which was adopted in 2004 with the aim of preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery (missiles) to non-state actors, Japan contributes to maintaining and strengthening international non-proliferation frameworks through Japan's contributions to support the implementation of the resolution by Asian nations.

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• 11 13 countries are designated by the IAEA Board of Governors. The designated member states include Japan and other G7 countries with advanced nuclear energy capabilities.
• 12 An Additional Protocol is concluded in addition to a Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement that is applied on all nuclear materials pertaining to the peaceful nuclear activities in that country, and that non-nuclear-weapon NPT States Parties must conclude with the IAEA pursuant to Article 3 Paragraph 1 of the NPT. The conclusion of the Additional Protocol expands the scope of nuclear activity information that should be declared to the IAEA, and gives the IAEA strengthened measures to verify the absence of undeclared nuclear materials and activities. As of November 2020, 136 countries have concluded the Additional Protocol.
• 13 Apart from export control regimes, the Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (HCOC), which includes the principle of exercising restraint in their development and deployment, addresses the issue of ballistic missiles. As of December 2020, 143 countries subscribe to the HCOC.
• 14 107 countries participate in and support the PSI as of December 2020. In the past, in addition to hosting PSI maritime interdiction exercises in 2004, 2007, and 2018, and air interdiction exercises in 2012, Japan also hosted an Operational Experts Group (OEG) meeting in 2010 in Tokyo. Japan has also actively participated in training and related conferences hosted by other countries. This includes a rotation exercise in the Asia-Pacific region and the High-Level Political Meeting in the U.S. in January 2016. Most recently, Japan took part in a High-Level Political Meeting to commemorate the 15th anniversary of the PSI, held in France in May 2018.
• 15 Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the ROK, Singapore, and the U.S. contributed assets and personnel to the exercise, which was held in Yokosuka City, off the Boso Peninsula and the Izu Peninsula, and 19 countries from Indo-Pacific region and other countries sent observers.
• 16 A multilateral Director-General-level meeting hosted by Japan to discuss various issues related to the strengthening of the nonproliferation regime in Asia among the ten ASEAN Member States, China, India, the ROK, as well as the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, Canada, France, and the EU, which have common interests in Asian regional security.
• 17 A seminar hosted by Japan to exchange views and information toward strengthening export controls in Asia, with the participation of export control officials from Asian countries and regions. It has been organized annually in Tokyo since 1993.
• 18 Adopted in April 2004, UN Security Council Resolution 1540 obliges all countries to: (1) refrain from providing support to terrorists and other non-state actors attempting to develop weapons of mass destruction; (2) adopt and enforce laws prohibiting the development of weapons of mass destruction by terrorists and other non-state actors; and (3) implement domestic controls (protective measures, border control, export controls, etc.) to prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The resolution also establishes, under the UN Security Council, the 1540 Committee, which comprises Security Council members and has a mandate to review and report to the Security Council the level of resolution 1540 implementation by member states.

B Regional Non-proliferation Issues

North Korea has not carried out the dismantlement of all weapons of mass destruction and ballistic missiles of all ranges in a complete, verifiable and irreversible manner in accordance with a series of relevant UN Security Council resolutions.

North Korea frequently and repeatedly conducted launches of short-range ballistic missiles from May to November 2019, and launched short-range ballistic missiles four times in March 2020. The IAEA Director General's report in September pointed out that some nuclear facilities continued to operate while others remained shut down. It also noted that North Korea's nuclear activities remain a cause for serious concern, and that these activities are clear violations of UN Security Council resolutions and it is deeply regrettable. At the same IAEA General Conference, a resolution based on the report was adopted by consensus, and IAEA member countries expressed their solidarity on achieving the denuclearization of North Korea.

It is crucial that the international community makes concerted efforts to fully implement the UN Security Council resolutions for dismantlement of all weapons of mass destruction and ballistic missiles of all ranges, in a complete, verifiable and irreversible manner by North Korea. To that end, Japan will continue to coordinate closely with related countries, including the U.S. and the ROK, as well as international organizations such as the IAEA. In addition, from the viewpoint of the full implementation of the UN Security Council resolutions, Japan will work on capacity building for export control particularly in Asia.

With respect to Iran, the IAEA has continuously monitored and verified Iran's implementation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)¹⁹ since January 2016. In May 2018, the U.S. announced its withdrawal from the JCPOA, and sanctions against Iran were reapplied in August and November. On the other hand, Iran announced a phased suspension of its commitments under the JCPOA in May 2019. Thereafter, it has taken a succession of steps that include exceeding the limit on the stockpile of low-enriched uranium and level of uranium enrichment, conducting activities related to its centrifuge research and development beyond the limits of the JCPOA and restarting uranium enrichment activities at the Fordow Fuel Enrichment Plant. In January 2020, Iran announced that it would not be bound by the limit on the enrichment of uranium set forth in the JCPOA. Iran also announced that it had begun producing 20% enriched uranium as well as research and development activities on uranium metal in January 2021. In addition, it suspended implementation of the transparency measures under the JCPOA in February.

Japan, deeply concerned about Iran's continued reduction of its commitments under the JCPOA, strongly urges Iran to comply with the JCPOA, and to immediately return to its commitments, while also strongly urging Iran to refrain from further measures that may undermine the JCPOA. Japan is also calling upon Iran to fully cooperate with the IAEA based on the JCPOA and in accordance with all its nuclear obligations.

Since January 2020, IAEA had demanded access (site visit) to two locations in Iran but Iran had denied it. Concerning this problem, the IAEA Board of Governors adopted its resolution in June 2020, calling on Iran to fully cooperate with IAEA including by providing prompt access to the locations specified by IAEA. At the end of August, Director General Grossi visited Iran, and a joint statement was issued by IAEA and Iran. Accesses to the locations were conducted after that.

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• 19 Sets forth detailed procedures for imposing constraints on Iran's nuclear activities while ensuring that they serve peaceful purposes, and for lifting the imposed sanctions.
  <Main measures undertaken by Iran>
  ● Constraints on enriched uranium-related activities
  　・ Limit on the number of centrifuges in operation to 5,060 unit
  　・ Upper limit on enriched uranium at 3.67%, and limit on the amount of stored enriched uranium at 300 kg, etc.
  ● Constraints on the Arak heavy-water nuclear reactor, and reprocessing
  　・ Redesign / remodeling of the Arak heavy-water nuclear reactor so that it is not able to produce weapon-grade plutonium and to transfer spent fuel out of the country
  　・ No reprocessing including for research purposes, no construction of reprocessing facilities, etc.

C Nuclear Security

With regards to nuclear security that aims to prevent acts of terrorism such as those involving the use of nuclear and other radioactive materials, the IAEA, the UN and like-minded countries have strengthened international cooperation on nuclear security through various efforts. These include the Nuclear Security Summit, which was hosted by then U.S. President Obama and held four times between 2010 and 2016, and the International conference on Nuclear Security. Japan continues to actively participate in and contribute to these efforts. In February 2020, State Minister for Foreign Affairs Wakamiya Kenji represented the Government of Japan at the International Conference on Nuclear Security organized by the IAEA, where he delivered a speech.

Based on “the Practical Arrangements between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan and the International Atomic Energy Agency on Cooperation in the Area of Support to the Implementation of Nuclear Security Measures on the Occasion of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games,” signed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the IAEA in February 2018, relevant Japanese ministries and organizations conducted a table-top exercise on nuclear security measures for major public events with the participation of experts from the IAEA and the U.S. in October, 2019.

(3) Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy

A Multilateral Efforts

Along with nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, the peaceful uses of nuclear energy are considered to be one of the three pillars of the NPT. According to the treaty, it is the “inalienable right” for any country that meets its obligations to non-proliferation to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Reflecting the increase in international energy demand, many countries use or are planning to use nuclear power.²⁰

On the other hand, these nuclear materials, equipment, and technologies used for nuclear power generation can be diverted to uses for military purposes, and a nuclear accident in one country may have significant impacts on neighboring countries. For these reasons, with regard to the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, it is vital to ensure the “3S”²¹ : that is, (1) Safeguards, (2) Nuclear Safety (e.g. measures to ensure safety to prevent nuclear accidents), and (3) Nuclear Security. As the country that experienced the TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station accident, it is Japan's responsibility to share its experiences and lessons learned from the accident with other countries and to contribute to strengthening global nuclear safety. In this regard, Japan and the IAEA have been working in cooperation. The IAEA Response and Assistance Network (RANET) Capacity Building Centre (CBC) in Fukushima Prefecture was designated in 2013 and 26 workshops were held until December 2020 for Japanese and foreign officials to strengthen their capabilities in the field of emergency preparedness and response.

The difficult work of decommissioning, contaminated water management, decontamination and environmental remediation has been progressing steadily at the TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station by leveraging the collective technologies and knowledge of the world. Japan has been cooperating closely with the IAEA since the accident. In November 2020, Japan received a mission comprising experts on environmental radioactivity from an independent domestic research institute designated by the IAEA, conducted marine monitoring and review, and underwent an IAEA review on marine radiation monitoring efforts in Japan. In addition, the UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) published a report in 2014 on the levels and the impact of radiation from the TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station accident. Since 2018, UNSCEAR had been updating the report in order to carry out assessment based on the latest information, and there are plans to publish the report in 2021.

It is necessary to disseminate accurate information in a timely and appropriate manner in order to make progress in the decommissioning works and to promote recovery, with the support and correct understanding of the international community. From this perspective, Japan periodically releases comprehensive reports through the IAEA that cover matters such as progress in decommissioning and contaminated water management at the TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, results of the monitoring of air dose rate and seawater radioactivity concentration, and food safety. In addition, Japan submits reports on the current situation to all the Diplomatic Missions in Tokyo and to the IAEA every month in principle. Furthermore, Japan has organized more than 100 briefing sessions to all the Diplomatic Missions in Tokyo since the accident (held in February, April and October in 2020), and provided information through overseas diplomatic establishments. With respect to the status of contaminated water management at the TEPCO's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, Japan prepared an information sheet in English in order to clearly explain the difference between contaminated water and ALPS-treated water,²² which are often confused, to the international community, and distributed the information sheet at international conferences including the IAEA General Conference held in Vienna in September 2019.²³ Japan continues to provide information to the international community in a courteous and transparent manner, based on scientific evidence, and to make explanations securely so as to prevent causing further reputational damage.

Nuclear energy is applied not only to the field of power generation, but also to areas including human health, food and agriculture, environment, and industrial uses. Promoting the peaceful uses of nuclear energy in such non-power applications and contributing to development issues are becoming increasingly important as developing countries make up the majority of NPT member states. The IAEA also contributes to technical cooperation for developing countries and to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Against this background, Japan has been providing active support to the IAEA's activities, through such means as the Peaceful Uses Initiative (PUI) and IAEA technical cooperation that includes cooperation based on the Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development, and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (RCA). At the NPT Review Conference held in April 2015, Japan announced that it would be contributing a total of 25 million US dollars over five years to the PUI, a commitment that was achieved in April 2020.

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• 20 According to the IAEA, as of January 2021, 443 nuclear reactors are in operation worldwide and 52 reactors are under construction (see the IAEA website).
• 21 “3S” is used to refer to the IAEA's efforts toward nuclear safety, nuclear security, and nuclear safeguards, which are typical measures for non-proliferation.
• 22 ALPS-treated water is water purified using multiple purification systems, including advanced liquid processing systems (ALPS).
• 23 The most recent English language materials that are distributed at IAEA General Conferences and other assemblies and that concern the differences between polluted water and ALPS-treated water are available on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' website (https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/files/000564692.pdf).
  

B Bilateral Nuclear Cooperation Agreement

Bilateral nuclear cooperation agreements are concluded to establish a legal framework for securing a legal assurance from the recipient country on nuclear non-proliferation and the peaceful use of nuclear-related material and equipment that are transferred between the two countries, so as to realize cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy between the two countries. Under such bilateral agreements, it is possible to promote cooperation in areas such as the strengthening of nuclear safety.

When considering whether or not to establish a nuclear cooperation agreement framework with a foreign country, Japan considers the overall situation in each individual case, taking into account such factors as perspectives on non-proliferation, nuclear energy policy in that country, the country's trust in and expectations for Japan, and the bilateral relationship between the two countries. As of the end of 2020, Japan has concluded nuclear cooperation agreements with Canada, Australia, China, the U.S., France, the UK, the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), Kazakhstan, the ROK, Viet Nam, Jordan, Russia, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates and India in the order of effective date.

(4) Biological and Chemical Weapons

A Biological Weapons

The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)²⁴ is the only multilateral legal framework imposing a comprehensive ban on the development, production and possession of biological weapons. However, the question of how to reinforce the convention is a challenge as there are neither provisions governing the means of verifying compliance with the BWC nor an implementing organization for the convention.

Since 2006, decisions have been made to establish the Implementation Support Unit (fulfilling the functions of a Secretariat) and to hold intersessional meetings twice a year in between the Review Conferences held every five years. During this time, progress has been made with respect to initiatives aimed at strengthening the regime of the BWC.

Agreement has been reached with regard to discussing the five topics, namely international cooperation, reviews of developments in the field of science and technology, national implementation, assistance for preparedness and response, and institutional strengthening of the convention. The discussions are to be conducted at the inter-sessional meetings up until the upcoming 9th Review Conference.

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• 24 Entered into force in March 1975. Total number of state parties is 183 (as of December 2020).

B Chemical Weapons

The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)²⁵ imposes a comprehensive ban on the development, production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons, and stipulates that all existing chemical weapons must be destroyed. Compliance is ensured through a verification system consisting of declarations and inspections, making this convention a groundbreaking international agreement on the disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The implementing body of the CWC is the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which is based in the Hague, the Netherlands. Along with the UN, the OPCW has played a key role in the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons. Its extensive efforts toward the realization of a world without chemical weapons were highly acclaimed, and the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2013.

Japan, which has a highly developed chemicals industry and numerous chemicals factories, also accepts many OPCW inspections. Japan also actively cooperates with the OPCW in many other concrete ways, including measures to increase the number of member states and strengthening national implementation measures by States Parties with the aim of increasing the effectiveness of the convention. Moreover, under the CWC, Japan aims to complete, as soon as possible, the destruction of chemical weapons of the former Japanese Army abandoned in Chinese territory by working in cooperation with China.

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• 25 Entered into force in April 1997. Total number of state parties is 193 (as of December 2020).

(5) Conventional Weapons

Conventional weapons generally refer to arms other than weapons of mass destruction and include a wide variety of weapons ranging from large weapons such as landmines, tanks, and artillery to small arms such as handguns. The problem of conventional weapons, which are used in actual wars and cause injury and death to civilians, is a serious one for both national security and humanitarian concerns. The disarmament agenda presented in 2018 by UN Secretary-General Guterres categorizes disarmament of conventional weapons as one of the three pillars, “Disarmament that Saves Lives.” Japan is making active efforts involving cooperation and support based on international standards and principles concerning conventional weapons.

A Small Arms

Described as “the real weapons of mass destruction” due to the many human lives they take, small arms continue to proliferate due to the ease with which they can be obtained and used. They contribute to conflict prolongation and escalation, hindering the restoration of public security and post-conflict reconstruction and development. Since 1995, Japan has been working with other countries to submit a resolution on the illicit trade of small arms to the UN General Assembly, and the resolution has been adopted every year. In areas around the world, Japan has also provided support for projects to address the issue of small arms, including training and the collection and destruction of weapons. In 2019, Japan contributed two million US dollars to a mechanism for preventing small arms established under UN Secretary-General Guterres' disarmament agenda.

B The Arms Trade Treaty (ATT)²⁶

The Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), which seeks to establish common standards to regulate international trade in and prevent the illicit trade of conventional arms, entered into force in December 2014. As one of the original co-authors of the UN General Assembly resolution that initiated a consideration of the treaty, Japan has taken the lead in discussions and negotiations in the UN and contributed significantly to the establishment of the treaty. Even after the treaty entered into force, Japan has actively participated in discussions at Conferences of States Parties and other opportunities. Japan has continued to contribute in ways such as hosting the 4th Conference of States Parties to the Arms Trade Treaty in Tokyo as the first chair country elected from the Asia-Pacific region in August 2018. Japan also places importance on the universal application of the ATT. To that end, it has been encouraging countries, in particular Asian countries, to participate in the ATT. In 2020, Namibia, China, São Tomé and Príncipe, Afghanistan and Niue became new parties to the ATT, bringing the total number of state parties to 110 at the end of 2020.

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• 26 As of December 2020, there are 110 states and regions that are parties to the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT). Japan signed the Treaty on the day that it was released for signing and became a State Party in May 2014.

C Convention on Prohibition or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, CCW)²⁷

The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) prohibits or restricts the use of conventional weapons that are deemed to be excessively injurious or to have indiscriminate effects. It comprises a framework convention that sets forth procedural and other matters, as well as five annexed protocols that regulate individual conventional arms. The framework convention entered into force in 1983. Japan has ratified the framework convention and annexed Protocols I to IV, including the amended Protocol II. Prompted by concerns in the international community about the rapidly advancing military applications of science and technology, meetings of the Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS) have been held under the CCW framework since 2017. Meetings of the Group were held in March and August 2019, and the High Contracting Parties reached consensus on 11 guiding principles on LAWS. It was decided that discussions on matters including the guiding principles will be used as a basis for the clarification, consideration and development of normative and operational framework for the future. The 11 guiding principles were reached consensus at the Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the CCW held in November 2019. In 2020, a meeting of the Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) was convened in September. Japan continued to participate actively in this and contributed to discussions.

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• 27 As of December 2020, 125 countries and regions are parties to the CCW.

D Anti-personnel Mines

2019 marks the 20th anniversary of the entering into force of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on Their Destruction (Ottawa Treaty)²⁸. To date, Japan has continued to promote comprehensive measures with a focus on the effective prohibition of anti-personnel mines and strengthening of support for mine-affected countries. Along with calling on countries in the Asia-Pacific region to ratify or accede to the Convention, Japan has also been steadily engaged in international cooperation through landmine clearance, victim assistance and other activities in the international community, from the viewpoint of the “Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus.”

At the Eighteenth Meeting of the States Parties of the Ottawa Treaty held in Geneva in November 2020, Japan looked back on its initiatives and achievements in supporting mine action, and also expressed its continued resolve toward playing an active role in achieving a mine-free world.

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• 28 The Convention, which entered into force in March 1999, bans the use and production of anti-personnel mines while mandating the destruction of stockpiled mines and the clearance of buried mines. As of December 2020, there are 164 states and regions that are parties to the Convention, including Japan.

E Cluster Munitions²⁹

The international community takes very seriously the humanitarian consequences brought about by cluster munitions. Japan is therefore taking steps to address this issue via victim assistance and unexploded ordinance clearance³⁰, while also continuing its efforts to increase the number of States Parties to the Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM)³¹. Japan is participating in discussions concerning these issues toward the upcoming Second Review Conference of the Convention on Cluster Munitions to be held in 2021.

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• 29 Generally speaking, it refers to bombs or shells in the form of large containers that open midair and release submunitions that spread over a wide area. They are said to be highly likely to not explode on impact, leading to the problem of civilians being accidentally killed or injured.
• 30 See the White Paper on Development Cooperation for specific efforts on international cooperation regarding cluster munitions and anti-personnel mines.
• 31 Entered into force in August 2010, it prohibits the use, possession, or production of cluster munitions, while mandating the clearance of cluster munitions in contaminated areas and the destruction of stockpiled cluster munitions. As of December 2020, there are 110 states and regions that are parties to the Convention, including Japan.