2 Promotion of Rule-Making to Bolster Free and Open Global Economic Systems

(1) Promotion of Economic Partnerships

In recent years, despite the advancement of economic globalism, there have been clear developments toward protectionism as COVID-19 infections spread, and furthermore, the global economy as a whole is in turmoil due to Russia's aggression against Ukraine. In such circumstances, Japan has emphasized and steadily promoted Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) and Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), which help capture the vitality of the growing market overseas and strengthen the basis of the Japanese economy through measures such as the reduction or elimination of tariffs on goods as well as barriers on trade in services, and through rule-making for trade and investment. The Japan-UK CEPA entered into force on January 1, 2021, followed by the entry into force of the RCEP Agreement on January 1, 2022 for Japan, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam, China, Australia, and New Zealand. This brought the EPA/FTA ratio in Japan's trade (the ratio of trade value with countries that have EPAs/FTAs already signed or entered into force with Japan, to Japan's total trade value) to around 78.0% (source: Trade Statistics, Ministry of Finance, 2023).

Furthermore, in January 2023 the Protocol Amending the Trade Agreement between Japan and the United States of America, which modifies the conditions for the application of agricultural safeguards on U.S. beef, entered into force.

To advance a free and fair economic order, the basis for its own peace and prosperity, Japan will proactively continue its endeavors, including maintaining the high standards of the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), ensuring the full implementation of the RCEP Agreement, and negotiating other economic partnership agreements.

A Multilateral Agreements and Other Matters

(A) Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)

The CPTPP is an agreement that promotes efforts to establish new economic integration rules for the 21st century in a wide range of areas such as tariffs, services, investments, E-commerce, intellectual property, and state-owned enterprises. It also provides opportunities for Japanese companies to better thrive in overseas markets, giving it important economic significance as a major driving force for the country's economic growth. Furthermore, the CPTPP has great strategic significance in that it facilitates the building of a free and fair economic order together with countries that share fundamental values such as freedom, democracy, fundamental human rights, and the rule of law, contributing to Japan's security and stability in the Indo-Pacific region as well as leading to peace and prosperity in the region and the world at large. The 12 countries of Japan, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, the U.S., and Viet Nam signed the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPP12 Agreement) in February 2016. However, due to the U.S.' announcement of its withdrawal from the TPP12 Agreement in 2017, Japan proactively led discussions among the 11 countries for the early realization of the TPP. Agreement in principle was reached at the TPP Ministerial Meeting in November 2017, and the CPTPP was signed in Chile in March 2018. The six countries (Mexico, Japan, Singapore, New Zealand, Canada, and Australia) completed necessary domestic procedures and the Agreement entered into force on December 30, 2018. Viet Nam became a Party in January 2019, Peru in September 2021, and Malaysia in November 2022, and the Agreement entered into force with nine Parties.

Since the CPTPP entered into force, six CPTPP Commission meetings have been held mostly at the ministerial level. At the Fourth Commission meeting in June 2021, it was decided to commence the accession process with the UK, which formally submitted its accession request in February, 2021, and to establish an Accession Working Group (AWG) for the UK. The first meeting of the AWG was convened in September 2021. In July 2022, the AWG meeting was held in Tokyo with the CPTPP Members and the UK holding in-depth discussions on a variety of issues to ensure that the accession process can appropriately proceed while maintaining the high standards of the Agreement in terms of its rules and market access. The progress of the accession process with the UK presents a powerful message to the world that the CPTPP will drive forward free trade. It also provides important momentum for expanding free and fair trade and investment rules for the 21st century. To ensure that the UK's accession process proceeds smoothly while maintaining the high level of the CPTPP, Japan will hold substantial discussions in the AWG as its chair. In October, the 6th Commission meeting was held in Singapore. In this meeting, which was the first face-to-face ministerial-level meeting to be held in three years since the First commission meeting, the Members affirmed their commitment to engage in crucial trade matters that concern the region, such as building resilient supply chains impacted by the pandemic, and to counter unjustified trade restrictive measures and economic coercion. In addition, reports were made on the results of each of the Committee`s activities and on the progress of cooperation made in the digital economy and green economy fields. There were also active discussions amongst the attending Ministers, including a report from Japan, Chair of the AWG, on the UK's accession process. Formal accession requests were submitted by China on September 16, 2021, Taiwan on September 22, 2021, Ecuador on December 17, 2021, Costa Rica on August 10, 2022, and Uruguay on December 1, 2022. While carefully assessing whether the aspirant economies that submitted accession requests are prepared to fully meet the high standards of the CPTPP in terms of its market access and rules, Japan will deal with this matter while taking into account strategic perspectives and public understanding.

(B) Japan-EU Economic Partnership Agreement (Japan-EU EPA)

The EU is Japan's third largest export partner (9.2% of total exports) and its second-largest import partner (11.1% of total imports). The combined GDP of Japan and the EU is 22.1 trillion US dollars, with total trade of 14.6 trillion US dollars (as of 2021 for both figures). The Japan-EU EPA, which entered into force in February 2019, constitutes a free and advanced economic area that accounts for approximately one fourth of global GDP and one third of global trade, and trade between Japan and the EU has remained strong on the basis of this Agreement, despite the impact of COVID-19 and Russia's aggression against Ukraine.

After the Agreement entered into force, discussions have continued through Joint Committees and Specialised Committees in 12 areas in order to ensure its steady implementation. At the third meeting of the Joint Committee held in March, discussions were held on the effective operation of the Agreement, and cooperation between Japan and the EU on various economic issues was confirmed. In October, formal negotiations began for the inclusion of “provisions on the free flow of data” into the Agreement. Japan will continue to aim for the further development of Japan-EU economic relations based on this Agreement.

(C) Japan-UK Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (Japan-UK CEPA)

The Japan-UK EPA, which entered into force in January 2021, ensures business continuity for Japanese companies after the UK left the EU and is a key foundation for further strengthening Japan-UK relations. The Japan-UK EPA, based on the Japan-EU EPA and comprising 24 chapters in total, stipulates rules that are more advanced and high-level than those of the Japan-EU EPA in such areas as electronic commerce and financial services, and also improves access to the UK market for some items such as railway vehicles and automobile parts. It is also Japan's first EPA to include a chapter on Japan-UK cooperation to promote women's access to the opportunities and benefits created by trade. Japan is now exchanging information on the implementation of the Agreement through specialized committees and working groups in 13 fields. In February, the first meeting of the Joint Committee was held to confirm the operational status of the Agreement and to strengthen cooperation between Japan and the UK in areas such as digital trade and climate change. Japan will continue to closely work together with the UK with the aim of further deepening Japan-UK economic relations.

(D) Japan-China-ROK FTA

The Japan-China-ROK FTA is the one with Japan's major trading partners: China and the ROK. Negotiations began in March 2013 and a total of 16 rounds of negotiations had been held as of December 2022.

(E) Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) Agreement

The RCEP Agreement is an economic partnership agreement with a total of 15 member states, namely the ASEAN member states, Japan, Australia, China, the ROK, and New Zealand. RCEP participating countries account for roughly 30% of the world's total GDP, total trade, and population. The entry into force of the Agreement is expected to further strengthen Japan's ties with the regions serving as the world's growth center, thus contributing to the economic growth of Japan. Following a ceremony to launch RCEP negotiations during the ASEAN-related summit meeting held in Phnom Penh, Cambodia in November 2012, there were eight years of negotiations that included four summit meetings, 19 ministerial meetings, and 31 rounds of negotiations. The Agreement was signed on the occasion of the fourth RCEP Summit on November 15, 2020. Although India had participated from the start of negotiations, at the third Summit in November 2019, India declared that it would not participate in further negotiations and did not sign the RCEP Agreement. However, at the signing, Signatory States issued a “Ministers' Declaration on India's Participation in the RCEP,” which clarified that the Agreement would be open for India, and stipulated a facilitation of India's future accession and allowed it to participate in related meetings as an observer. Due to the significant economic and strategic importance of India's participation in the RCEP, Japan will continue to play a leading role for the future participation of India to the RCEP Agreement.

The RCEP Agreement entered into force on January 1, 2022. The first Joint Committee meeting was held online on April 26 and 27, and the inaugural RCEP Ministers' Meeting was held in Siem Reap, Cambodia on September 17. Japan will coordinate closely with countries involved to enforce economic activity that is based on free and fair rules in the region by ensuring the full implementation of the Agreement.

(F) Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP) Concept

The Lima Declaration on the FTAAP adopted at the 2016 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit meeting confirmed mainly the following two points: (1) the FTAAP would be high quality and comprehensive, and address next-generation trade and investment issues, being built in accordance with the CPTPP and the RCEP Agreement; (2) efforts would begin on implementing work plans supporting related capacity building. Thailand, which became the APEC Chair in 2022, compiled a “FTAAP Agenda Work Plan” and called for a progress report on its implementation at the APEC Ministerial Meeting in 2023.

Since 2017, Japan has been continuously providing capacity building support through policy dialogues, etc. concerning the “competition chapters” in FTAs and EPAs and investment policies. From the viewpoint of achieving a comprehensive and high-quality FTAAP, it is highly significant that the CPTPP entered into force at the end of December 2018 and that the RCEP Agreement entered into force in January 2022.

B Bilateral Agreements

(A) Japan-Turkey EPA

As an important country that serves as a hub among Europe, the Middle East, the Central Asia and Caucasus region, and Africa, Turkey has considerable economic potential and is attracting attention as a production base for exports to surrounding regions. Turkey has signed FTAs with over 20 countries and regions, and the need has been recognized for Japan to develop conditions of competition for Japanese companies through the conclusion of an EPA.

Furthermore, business communities in both countries have high expectations for an early conclusion of an EPA between the two countries. At the Japan-Turkey Summit Meeting in January 2014, the leaders agreed to launch negotiations, and 17 rounds of negotiations had been held as of the end of 2022.

(B) Japan-Colombia EPA

Japan began EPA negotiations in December 2012 with Colombia, a country with rich natural resources and high economic growth. Since Colombia has concluded FTAs with a number of countries (including the U.S., Canada, the EU and the ROK), it has been increasingly necessary for Japan to establish a competitive environment in the country. The strengthening of bilateral relations through an EPA is also expected to lead to improved cooperation in the international arena and promote cooperation among Japan and the Pacific Alliance (Mexico, Colombia, Peru, and Chile). Negotiations are currently ongoing.

C Other Existing EPAs

The existing EPAs contain provisions concerning the joint committee, which is a body that discusses the implementation of the agreements, and a process to review the agreements after a certain period of time following their entry into force. In addition, a variety of consultations are being held in order to smoothly implement EPAs after their entry into force.

In accordance with the EPAs, Japan has been accepting candidates for nurses and certified care workers from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Viet Nam. In total, 3,633 (as of FY2022) candidates have been accepted from Indonesia (since 2008), 3,384 (as of FY2022) from the Philippines (since 2009), and 1,696 (as of FY2022) from Viet Nam (since 2014). The total number of nurses and certified care workers who have passed national exams is 573 and 2,136 individuals, respectively, as of FY2021.

D Investment-related Treaties

Investment-related treaties (Investment agreement and EPA/FTA including investment chapter) constitute an important legal basis to improve predictability for investors and promote investment by establishing common rules for the protection of investors and their investment property, enhancement of transparency in regulations, expansion of investment opportunities, procedures for investment dispute settlement, and other matters. Japan has actively engaged in concluding investment agreements, as these agreements are considered to improve the investment environment for Japanese companies overseas and to attract foreign investment to the Japanese market.

In 2022, the Japan-Morocco Investment Agreement entered into force in April and the Japan-Bahrain Investment Agreement was signed in June. As of the end of January 2023, 52 investment-related agreements have entered into force (35 investment agreements and 17 EPAs), and three investment-related agreements have been signed but have not yet entered into force (two investment agreements and one EPA). Altogether, there will be 55 investment-related agreements covering 80 countries and regions. Including investment-related agreements that are currently under negotiation, these investment-related agreements will cover 94 countries/regions and approximately 95% of Japan's outbound direct foreign investment¹.

• 1 “Regional balance of Direct Investment (Assets),” Ministry of Finance (All regions) (As of the end of 2021)

E Tax Conventions/Agreements on Social Security

(A) Tax Conventions

Tax conventions are intended to eliminate international double taxation in cross-border economic activities (e.g. to reduce or exempt withholding taxes imposed on investment income such as dividends), or to prevent tax evasion or avoidance, and provide an important legal basis for promoting sound investment and economic exchange between two countries. To support the sound overseas business expansion of Japanese companies, the Government of Japan is working to expand the necessary tax treaty networks, both in terms of quality and quantity.

Entering into force in 2022 were a tax treaty with Morocco in April, a tax treaty with Colombia in September, and a revised protocol for a tax treaty with Switzerland in November. Furthermore, a new (completely revised) tax treaty was reached with Azerbaijan in May, and a tax treaty with Algeria was agreed to in substance in June. As of December 2022, Japan has signed 84 tax treaties applied to 151 economies.

(B) Agreements on Social Security

Agreements on social security aim to resolve the issues of the double payment of social security insurance premiums and annuity insurance non-refunds. They are expected to facilitate interpersonal exchange and strengthen further bilateral relations, including economic exchange, by reducing the burden on Japanese companies and citizens working overseas. The total number of countries that have concluded or signed such agreements with Japan now stands at 23 as of December 2022.

(2) Initiatives with International Organizations

A World Trade Organization (WTO)

(A) The 12th WTO Ministerial Conference (MC12)

The 12th WTO Ministerial Conference (MC12) was held in Geneva from June 12 to 17. After being postponed three times, MC12 was finally held after four and a half years. For the first time in about six and a half years, the WTO Ministerial Conference also achieved results such as the issuance of the Ministerial Declaration. Parliamentary Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs MIYAKE Shingo from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) attended the meeting, actively held bilateral talks, and contributed to coordinating the opinions to achieve the results. Furthermore, he participated in an EU-sponsored solidarity with Ukraine meeting, and in a UK-sponsored meeting on trade effort to support Ukraine, expressing solidarity with Ukraine and condemning Russia's aggression.

MC12 confirmed the role that the WTO should play as a trade organization in addressing the current challenges faced by the international community, such as the COVID-19 crisis and the food supply problems caused by Russia's aggression against Ukraine. Discussions were also held on the role of trade in addressing future crises and in the process of economic recovery, as well as discussions on rule-making in areas such as fisheries subsidies. As a result of persistent discussions that lasted well into the night, extending the originally scheduled session, Ministerial Declarations and Ministerial Decisions were adopted in the specific areas of pandemic response, responses to food insecurity, exemptions of World Food Programme (WFP) food purchases from export prohibitions and restrictions, and extension of the current practice of not imposing customs duties on electronic transmissions until the next WTO Ministerial Conference (MC13). Furthermore, after more than 20 years of negotiations, numerous other results were obtained in addition to this, such as the conclusion of negotiations on fisheries subsidies (see the Special Feature on page 301).

With regard to e-commerce negotiations, which were initiated by like-minded countries, Japan, Australia and Singapore, who are co-conveners of e-commerce negotiations, expressed their willingness to remain committed to reaching an agreement on global digital trade rules, and released the Ministers' Statement. As a co-convener on e-commerce negotiations, Japan will continue to lead discussions in order to formulate high-level rules in a way that includes many participating countries.

(B) Visit to Japan by Director-General Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala of the WTO

From October 18 to 20, Director-General Okonjo-Iweala of the WTO visited Japan for the first time since assuming the post of Director-General. In addition to meeting with dignitaries of Japan, including a courtesy call to Prime Minister Kishida and a working dinner with Foreign Minister Hayashi, she exchanged views with executives from the ruling party of Japan and the Japan Business Federation (Keidanren), and gave a lecture at the Japan Institute of International Affairs. During her meetings with senior officials of Japan, Director-General Okonjo-Iweala expressed her appreciation for Japan's contributions to the WTO thus far, and expressed her strong expectations for the role of Japan as the G7 Presidency in 2023. In response, Prime Minister Kishida stated that he would support the leadership of Director-General Okonjo and actively contribute to discussions at the WTO. In addition, Foreign Minister Hayashi stated that as the international environment surrounding trade is undergoing major changes, it is now more important than ever for the WTO, as the core of the multilateral trading system, to fulfill its functions for meeting the demands of the time. Foreign Minister Hayashi and Director-General Okonjo-Iweala also confirmed that Japan and the WTO will continue to work closely toward the next WTO Ministerial Conference.

Since assuming her office in February 2021, Director-General Okonjo-Iweala has visited major countries, including Japan. Furthermore, she has actively participated in various international conferences and has strongly promoted cooperation with member states on issues that the WTO faces, including the fisheries subsidies negotiations and WTO reforms. In 2022, in addition to trade-related meetings, including the G7 and G20, the WTO also participated in non-trade-related international conferences, such as the Eighth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD 8) held in Tunisia in August and the 27th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP27) held in Egypt in November, and has been active in communicating the relationship between global issues and international trade.

(C) Dispute Settlement

The WTO dispute settlement procedures² are a system for settling economic disputes between WTO Members based on rules, and serve as a pillar that imparts security and predictability to the multilateral trading system. Since December 2019, the Appellate Body that serves as the Second Instance (final instance) has “ceased to function” due to a lack of members needed for deliberation, but the dispute settlement system itself continues to be used by member states. In 2022 eight disputes were submitted, and, in the 27 years since the WTO was established, 615 cases have been filed, including 6 current cases³ in which Japan is one of the parties.

• 2 Related article: (Japanese only) https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/ecm/ds/page24_000710.html
  
• 3 India's safeguard measure on iron and steel products, the ROK's anti-dumping duties on stainless steel bars made in Japan, the ROK's support measures for the ROK's shipbuilding industry, India's handling of tariff increases on ICT products, Japan's review of export control procedures for the ROK, and China's anti-dumping duties on stainless steel products made in Japan.

At the Twelfth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (WTO) held in Geneva, Switzerland, in June, all 164 member countries and regions reached a consensus, and a new protocol was adopted to add the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies to the WTO Agreements.

The Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies aims to achieve the sustainable use of living marine resources by prohibiting subsidies for illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and others. Up until now a variety of efforts have been made by Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) from the perspective that international cooperation is necessary to effectively deter IUU fishing. Under the FAO framework, the Agreement on Port State Measures (PSMA), which Japan joined in 2017, allows port states to deny entry to and use of their ports to vessels that are engaged in IUU fishing. In contrast to this, the Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, with respect to the fisheries subsidies that are granted by each country, stipulates prohibition of subsidies that contribute to IUU fishing and prohibition in principle of subsidies regarding overfished stocks and so forth.

The Twelfth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (June, Geneva, Switzerland; Photo: World Trade Organization)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN that were adopted in 2015 call for the elimination of subsidies that lead to IUU fishing. The conclusion of this Agreement will contribute to achieving this goal. At the same time, it is also important that it is the first agreement adopted with the participation and negotiation of all WTO Member countries and regions since the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement that entered into force in 2017, thereby demonstrating that the WTO's rule-making function remains sound and well.

When a new WTO agreement is accepted by two-thirds of the WTO Member countries/regions, it then enters into force for those countries/regions, and thereafter it enters into force for other countries/regions when each one of them accepts the agreement. Early entry into force of the Agreement is desirable as it is expected to contribute to promoting global fisheries resource management and to realizing the sustainable use of living marine resources.

B Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)

(A) Features

The OECD researches and analyzes a broad range of economic and social fields and makes specific policy recommendations to its members. Through discussions held by approximately 30 committees, it has formed international standards and rules. Since its accession to the OECD in 1964, Japan has been actively engaged in OECD initiatives through discussions at various committees as well as financial and human resources contributions.

(B) 2022 OECD Ministerial Council Meeting

The 2022 OECD Ministerial Council Meeting (MCM) met in Paris, France, on June 9 and 10 with Italy as Chair and Mexico and Norway as Vice Chairs, and discussed various issues under the theme of “The Future We Want: Better Policies for the Next Generation and a Sustainable Transition.” Minister of State for Economic and Fiscal Policy YAMAGIWA Daishiro and Parliamentary Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs Miyake attended the meeting in person. Parliamentary Vice-Minister Miyake stated that Japan strongly condemns Russia's aggression of Ukraine as an attempt to unilaterally change the status quo by force, and stressed the need for the OECD to continue to act in solidarity based on “shared values.” He also stated that it is important to disseminate OECD rules and standards to non-member countries, in particular to realize new accession from Southeast Asian countries, and expressed his expectation that the OECD Tokyo Centre will serve as a regional hub.

At the end of the MCM, the 2022 OECD Ministerial Council Statement was adopted, which reflects the positions and views of member countries on issues such as Russia's aggression against Ukraine and climate change. In the Statement, elements such as condemnation of Russia's aggression against Ukraine, countering economic coercion, promoting compliance with OECD standards by non-member countries, launching the Inclusive Forum on Carbon Mitigation Approaches (IFCMA), strengthening international cooperation on supply chains as well as corporate governance and Responsible Business Conduct (RBC), developing principles on government access, and continuing cooperation on “data free flow with trust (DFFT)” are included.

(C) Initiatives in Various Sectors

The OECD is strengthening its cooperation with the G20, G7, APEC, and other international fora, and is undertaking initiatives that include leading discussions on international taxation system reform, disseminating and implementing the G20 Principles for Quality Infrastructure Investment, addressing the issue of excess production capacity involving steel, and revising principles concerning corporate governance and aid coordination.

(D) Outreach to Southeast Asia

Due to the growing importance of Southeast Asia as a center for global economic growth, the OECD has been working to bolster relations with the region by holding policy talks and other events through the Southeast Asia Regional Programme (SEARP). In February the OECD SEARP Ministerial Conference was held in Seoul, ROK in a hybrid format, and Foreign Minister Hayashi sent a video message from Japan. Parliamentary Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs TAKAGI Kei attended the OECD Southeast Asia Ministerial Forum held in Hanoi, Viet Nam in person, and stated that Japan will continue to support the efforts of Southeast Asian countries as a bridge between the OECD and Southeast Asia. Japan will continue to utilize the Tokyo Centre of the OECD to encourage future accession from Southeast Asian countries to the OECD.

(E) Contributions in Terms of Financial and Human Resources

As of 2022, Japan was the second largest financial contributor to the OECD, covering 9.2% of the OECD's mandatory contributions (the U.S. is first, covering 19.9%). Moreover, Japanese nationals have successively served as one of the Deputy Secretary Generals (there are four positions in total; currently Deputy Secretary General TAKEUCHI Yoshiki), and 85 Japanese staff work at the OECD Secretariat as of the end of 2022.

(3) Intellectual Property Protection

Strengthening intellectual property protections is extremely important for the promotion of technological innovation and eventually for economic development. Japan has actively participated in multilateral consultations such as APEC, the WTO (TRIPS)⁴, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and is working to improve an environment for ensuring that Japanese intellectual property is appropriately protected and utilized overseas. For EPAs as well, Japan strives to establish regulations on intellectual property rights to ensure the adequate and effective protection of intellectual property. The CPTPP , the Japan-EU EPA, and the RCEP Agreement have stipulated contents on further promotion of the protection and use of intellectual property. Moreover, for the purpose of rapidly and efficiently providing assistance for Japanese companies that are facing problems such as counterfeit and pirated goods, the MOFA appoints Intellectual Property Officers at almost all of Japan's diplomatic missions overseas so that they can advise Japanese companies and make inquiries with or requests to their counterpart governments. Furthermore, every year, Meetings of Intellectual Property Officers are held to assess the damage in each country and the response status by diplomatic missions overseas, exchange opinions and share best practices on building appropriate systems, and strengthen efforts to combat intellectual property right infringements. In 2022, the meetings were held with a focus on Middle East and Africa in February and China in November.

• 4 TRIPS: Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights