3 Global Security

(1)Regional Security

The security environment surrounding the Asia-Pacific region is becoming increasingly severe due to various reasons such as the shift in the global power balance. Meanwhile, it would be difficult to say that the framework of regional security cooperation is sufficiently institutionalized because of the diversity of political, economic and social systems in the region. Therefore, Japan makes efforts to realize a regional security environment desirable for Japan, by strengthening the Japan-U.S. Alliance, and by combining bilateral and multilateral security cooperation at multiple levels mainly in the Asia-Pacific region. Japan has also unveiled a “Free and Open Indo-Pacific Strategy” from the perspective of promoting the stability and prosperity of the extensive region stretching from the Asia-Pacific Ocean, passing through the Indian Ocean, to the Middle East and Africa, by treating this region as an integrated whole and securing the free and open international maritime order in the Indo-Pacific.

Japan is working to further strengthen deterrence and response capabilities of the Japan-U.S. Alliance, as well as to enhance security cooperation with various other countries other than the U.S. In relation to the Republic of Korea, based on the recognition that closer cooperation between Japan and the ROK is crucial considering the growing threat posed by North Korea, Japan, the U.S., and the ROK have carried out the ballistic missile information sharing exercise as well as anti-submarine warfare exercise. Furthermore, the two countries frequently hold summit meetings and foreign ministerial meetings, and affirm that they will work closely together between Japan and the ROK, as well as between Japan, the U.S., and the ROK. In relation to Australia, at the seventh Japan-Australia Foreign and Defence Ministerial Consultations (“2+2”) held in April, the two countries have confirmed to further enhance Japan-Australia security and defense cooperation, as well as strengthening cooperation in addressing various issues which the region faces. At Summit Meetings held in January and November 2017 and January 2018, they also affirmed continuous cooperation to achieve the peace and stability of the Indo-Pacific region. In relation to India, at the Japan-India “2+2” Vice-Ministerial Dialogue held in March and the Japan-India Summit Meetings held in July, September and November, the two countries shared the view that they will work together towards the realization of free, open, and stable oceans, as well as regional stability and prosperity, which are the common goals, by coordinating Japan's "Free and Open Indo-Pacific Strategy" and India's "Act East" policy. In relation to the UK, at the Japan-UK Summit Meeting held in August and the third Japan-UK Foreign and Defence Ministerial Meeting (“2+2”) held in December, the two countries committed to elevating the Japan-UK security partnership to the next level, and shared the view to materialize cooperation towards the realization of a free and open Indo-Pacific region. In relation to France, a joint exercise by Japan, France, the UK, and the U.S. was conducted in May during the French naval fleet's visit to Japan as a part of "the Mission Jeanne d'Arc 2017." In addition, the fourth Japan-France Foreign and Defense Ministers' Meeting (“2+2”) was held in January 2018, during which the two countries reached a broad agreement on the ACSA. In relation to ASEAN Member States, through such efforts as providing patrol vessels, Japan continuously supports the efforts towards enhancing the maritime capabilities of the Philippines, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, and other countries.

In addition to strengthening bilateral cooperative relations mentioned above, Japan has also been promoting cooperation in the following frameworks to build a network for peace and prosperity in the region: the Japan-Australia-India Trilateral Dialogue Senior Officials Meeting (April and December), the Japan-U.S.-ROK Trilateral Summit Meeting (July and September), the Japan-U.S.-ROK Foreign Ministers' Meeting (February, April, and August 2017, and January 2018), the Japan-U.S.-Australia Trilateral Ministerial Strategic Dialogue (August), the Japan-U.S.-India Foreign Ministers' Meeting (September), the Japan-U.S.-Australia Summit Meeting (November), and the Japan-Australia-India-U.S. Consultations at the level of senior officials of diplomatic authorities (November).

Furthermore, it is also important to enhance the relationships of trust with China and Russia for the stability of the security environment surrounding Japan. The Japan-China relationship is one of the most important bilateral relationships, and Japan is striving to develop stable relations of friendship and cooperation from a broad perspective, under the “Mutually Beneficial Relationship Based on Common Strategic Interests.” As China's military trend is a major concern for Japan, Japan is making efforts to build multilayered channels for dialogue and exchanges in the field of security with China, including the Japan-China Security Dialogue held in October. Alongside with such efforts to communicate effectively in the policy aspect, Japan is also encouraging China to improve transparency. At the same time, Japan is striving to improve mutual relations of trust through high-level dialogues, including between leaders and foreign ministers. Regarding the Japan-Russia relations, while holding political dialogues at various levels, including four Summit Meetings and five Foreign Ministers' Meetings held in 2017, Japan has been energetically continuing negotiations with Russia with the aim of resolving the issue of the attribution of the Four Northern Islands and concluding a peace treaty. In the area of security, the Japan-Russia “2+2” Ministerial Meeting took place in March. Discussions were also held between their security authorities in September and December. The two countries held candid discussions on defense and security on the occasion of the visits to Japan by Colonel General Salyukov, Commander-in-Chief of the Land Forces of Russia, in November, and by General Gerasimov, Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, in December.

Furthermore, Japan held the 4th Politico-Military (PM) Dialogue with Cambodia (July), the 3rd PM Dialogue with Indonesia (July), the 16th PM Dialogue with the UK (November), the 10th PM Dialogue with Canada (December), and the 20th PM Dialogue with France (December) respectively. Japan also held the 2nd Security Dialogue with Laos (July) and the 15th Security Dialogue with China (October) as well as the 4th Politico-Military-Security Dialogue with Mongolia (August), and the 15th High-Level Consultations with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (May).

In addition, Japan has actively participated in and contributed to multilateral frameworks in the region, including the East Asia Summit (EAS), the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and the ASEAN Defence Ministers' Meeting-Plus (ADMM-Plus) in order to strengthen security cooperation in the region. Among these, the ARF aims at improving the security environment of the Asia-Pacific region through dialogues and cooperation on political and security issues. The ARF is an important security dialogue framework in which various entities including North Korea and the EU participate. It is also an important forum in promoting security cooperation in which it focuses on confidence building through various initiatives. In August, the 24th ARF Ministerial Meeting was held, where participating Ministers candidly exchanged views mainly on regional and international affairs, including the South China Sea and North Korea. As the number of cyberattacks is growing rapidly worldwide and cybersecurity has become increasingly important, it is essential to make greater collective efforts on cybersecurity including through the framework of the ARF as well. From this viewpoint, Japan, together with Malaysia and Singapore, proposed the establishment of ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting (ISM) on Security of and in the Use of Information and Communication Technologies. This establishment was approved unanimously. Japan is making a proactive contribution through, for example, taking a leading role as a co-chair in the Inter-Sessional Meeting (ISM) on Maritime Security (from summer 2014 to summer 2017). In this regard, Japan hosted the 9th ISM on Maritime Security in Tokyo in February 2017.

Furthermore, in addition to government-to-government dialogues (track 1), Japan actively utilizes frameworks where participants from both public and private sectors (track 1.5) exchange opinions and explain their security policies. Japan participates in various conferences, including the IISS Asia Security Summit (Shangri-La Dialogue) (Singapore). Also Foreign Minister Kono attended the Regional Security Summit (Manama Dialogue) (Bahrain) in December as well as the Munich Security Conference (Germany) in February 2018, as a part of Japan's efforts to promote other coutries' understanding of Japan's security policies, and to facilitate cooperation and confidence-building in the region.

(2) Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding

A On-the-Ground Initiatives

(A) UN Peacekeeping Operations (UN PKOs)

Traditionally, UN PKOs are positioned between parties to a dispute, and by monitoring ceasefires and the withdrawal of troops, they help calm the situation or prevent the recurrence of hostilities with the aim to support the settlement of the dispute through dialogue between the parties involved. However, following the changes in the international environment since the end of the Cold War, including an increase in civil wars, UN PKOs have multifaceted mandates in addition to its traditional mandates such as monitoring of ceasefires. These new mandates include support in Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants, security sector reform, elections, human rights, and the rule of law as well as the promotion of the political process and the protection of civilians. As of the end of 2017, 15 UN PKO missions were deployed, primarily in the Middle East and Africa, with a total of over 100,000 military, police and civilian personnel deployed to these missions. In response to the increasing complexity and scale of the mandates and the associated shortages of personnel, equipment, and financial resources, discussions on more effective and efficient implementation of UN PKOs are underway in various fora, primarily within the UN.

Based on the Act on Cooperation with UN Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations (PKO Act), Japan has dispatched more than 12,500 personnel to a total of 27 missions including UN PKO since 1992. More recently, Japanese staff officers have been dispatched to the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) since 2011, while the engineering units have been dispatched there since 2012. The engineering units in the South Sudanese capital of Juba and the surrounding areas have undertaken such activities as developing infrastructure such as roads, supporting displaced persons through the provision of water supplies, as well as site preparation, and concluded their activities in May 2017. On the other hand, four SDF officers are currently still on active duty at the UNMISS Headquarters. Japan will continue to contribute in various ways to peace and stability in South Sudan. Under the banner of “proactive contribution to peace,” building on the past experiences of peacekeeping operations and making use of its own strengths, Japan will also continue to contribute proactively in the field of international peace cooperation in the future such as through dispatching units and individuals, as well as enhancing capacity building.

(B) ODA and other Cooperation to Facilitate Peacebuilding

Japan attaches importance to peacebuilding as part of its international cooperation and it is positioned as one of the priority issues in Japan's Development Cooperation Charter.

In the area of coping with humanitarian crises, it is also effective to combine coordination between humanitarian assistance and development cooperation, with peacebuilding. It is important to drastically enhance measures to address the root causes of conflict, not only by taking post-conflict responses but by focusing more on the prevention of conflicts and their recurrence through nation-building and social stabilization measures during times of peace. Japan places great importance on such “humanitarian, development and peace nexus,” and has been providing support for peacebuilding particularly in the following countries and regions.

(1) Middle East

Based on the Kono Four Principles and the five new initiatives unveiled in September 2017, at the 13th Manama Dialogue held in December 2017, Minister for Foreign Affairs Kono announced that Japan will be providing fresh aid of about 21 million US dollars for humanitarian assistance efforts in Syria and the surrounding countries, as Japan's continued support to countries that have been affected by the fight against ISIL and other conflicts.

(2) Africa

Japan has consistently implemented measures towards the realization of peaceful and stable Africa that does not generate violent extremism and took up the theme of “promoting social stability for shared prosperity” as one of the priority areas of the TICAD VI Nairobi Declaration. During the UN General Assembly held in September 2017, Prime Minister Abe announced that Japan had provided approximately 23.3 billion Japanese yen towards efforts to promote social stability, including vocational training for more than 16,000 people since 2016 on various issues related to peace and stability in Africa. The leaders of the African countries present at the same UN General Assembly expressed their appreciation for Japan's support.

For instance, since 2014, Japan has provided training for human resources in the field of criminal justice in eight French-speaking countries of Africa, contributing to human resource development and capacity building in these countries. In September 2017, Japan also provided support for strengthening of security maintenance systems of the state police force of Liberia, with the aim of realizing fair and equitable presidential and lower house elections in the country.

Furthermore, Japan has been providing support to PKO training centers operated by African countries since 2007, and the amount of its assistance totals more than 45 million US dollars for facilities in 13 countries by 2017.

B Initiatives within the UN

Many regional conflicts and civil wars are rekindled even after the conflict has ended. Hence, it is extremely important to provide appropriate support in the post-conflict period. Based on this understanding, the Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) was established in 2005 with the aim of offering advice on integrated support, from conflict resolution to recovery, reintegration, and reconstruction. Japan has served as a member since its establishment, and contributed to its activities as the chair from 2006 to 2008 and also as the chair of PBC Working Group on Lessons Learned from 2011 to 2015.

Two resolutions were adopted in April 2016: the UN General Assembly Resolution (A/RES/70/262) on the “Review of the United Nations peacebuilding architecture” including the PBC, and the UN Security Council Resolution 2282. These resolutions recommended the improvement of the efficiency and flexibility of the PBC, along with the strengthening of cooperation between the PBC and the UN Security Council as well as other organizations. In response, the PBC launched a new initiative in 2017 to implement these resolutions, and there have been continued discussions to identify priority issues and formulate peacebuilding strategies in the five original agenda countries⁶.

As one of its new initiatives, the PBC designated focal points (countries in charge) to take the lead in five thematic discussions (institution-building, youths, gender, financing for peacebuilding, and national ownership). Japan has been appointed as the focal point for institution-building. In addition to the thematic discussions, Japan also hosts meetings on countries and regions apart from the countries on the PBC agenda, and contributes to improving the flexibility and efficiency of the PBC. Japan is also involved in efforts within the PBC to strengthen cooperative relationships with the World Bank and the African Union (AU).

In September 2016, Japan announced its aim to allocate 10 million US dollars as its initiative to contribute proactively to the Peacebuilding Fund (PBF). As of December 2017, Japan has contributed a total of 48.5 million US dollars (2.5 million US dollars in 2017) and ranks sixth among the major donor countries.

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• 6 Five countries of Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Central African Republic, and Liberia. Meetings on Guinea have not been convened in the recent years, and in July, the PBC made the decision to terminate the meetings on Guinea.

C Human Resource Development

(1) The Program for Global Human Resource Development for Peacebuilding and Development

While civilian experts with a high level of skill and expertise have a substantial role to play in the field of post-conflict peacebuilding, the number of those who are capable of fulfilling the role are insufficient, and consequently, the development of personnel has become a major challenge. Japan has been implementing programs for human resource development in order to cultivate civilian experts who can play a leading role in the field of peacebuilding and development. As of the end of the FY2017, a total of about 730 people have been trained. The trainees who completed the programs have gone on to play an active role in the field of peacebuilding and development worldwide in such countries as South Sudan and Afghanistan, and have received high acclaim from both the UN and other countries.

In the FY2017 program, training courses for younger personnel, as well as training courses for mid-career practitioners and one-to-one career development support, were implemented.

(2) Training for United Nations Peacekeepers

Japan has been supporting peacekeepers from various countries participating in UN PKOs to enhance their capabilities. Since 2015, Japan has dispatched 83 JSDF instructors for training approximately 130 future engineering personnel from five countries in East Africa that have expressed their intention to dispatch engineering units to UN PKOs (the UN Project for African Rapid Deployment of Engineering Capabilities). These instructors have conducted training on the operation of heavy engineering equipment, including training for full-scale operation of those equipments. Japan has also provided support for the UN Signals Academy, with the aim of facilitating the implementation of effective training for the signals units of UN PKOs in Africa. Japan also engages in dispatching instructors and other personnel to PKO Training Centers in Asia and African nations.

(3) Initiatives to Combat Security Threats

A Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism Measures

In 2017, terrorist incidents occurred around the world, including the shooting at a nightclub in Istanbul (January), bombing in Manchester (May), attack by a vehicle driven deliberately into crowds in Barcelona (August), and the terrorist incident on the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt (November).

While operations against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) carried out in Iraq and Syria had effectively reduced the areas dominated by ISIL, the threat of terrorism is spreading as a result of the return or relocation of foreign terrorist fighters to their home countries or to third countries. In particular, the threat of terrorism is growing in Asia.

At the G7 Ise-Shima Summit held in 2016, Japan took the lead in formulating the “G7 Action Plan on Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism.” The Plan stressed the importance of the following points: (1) Concrete counter-terrorism measures including the utilization of Interpol databases and passenger name records (PNR); (2) Promoting tolerance through dialogues aimed at preventing violent extremism; and (3) Support for capacity-building in developing countries. At the G7 Taormina Summit held in 2017, the full implementation of this Action Plan was affirmed, and Japan has been steadily moving forward on its implementation. Specifically, it has supplied equipment and conducted training for law-enforcement authorities, etc. in the areas of capacity building for border control including airport security, improving the investigation and prosecution capabilities of security personnel, and measures to counter terrorist financing including money-laundering and organized crime. In the aspect of countering violent extremism measures, Japan has been focused on the implementation of measures to counter violent extremism, which is the root cause of terrorism. This includes, in particular, community support at the grassroots level such as promotion of interfaith dialogue and empowering women and youths. Regionally, Japan places its emphasis on Asia. In particular, as one of the initiatives to strengthen comprehensive countering terrorism measures in the Asia region, Japan announced at the Japan-ASEAN Summit Meeting in 2016 that it will provide support of 45 billion Japanese yen and develop 2,000 personnel in the next three years. Japan is now steadily implementing this support initiative.

In 2017, Japan held counter-terrorism consultations with ASEAN, the U.S., Australia, India, and Pakistan, and affirmed its commitment towards strengthening cooperation and exchanging information on terrorism situation.

Japan has also held a workshop inviting officials from Asian countries as well as international organizations who are in charge of public security and correctional policy. At this workshop, participants had active discussions on the approaches for effective assistance and cooperation to counter-terrorism and violent extremism in Japan and other countries. Besides the lecture-style workshop, Japan arranged on-site visits to Japanese private enterprises to show the relevant technologies which can be applied to counter-terrorism measures in other countries. As another initiative, Japan has continued the invitation program for Islamic school teachers over ten years and arranged inter-faith dialogue, cultural visits and school visits for the participants. Japan will continue to implement such initiatives moving forward, in order to contribute to promote moderation.

With regard to initiatives implemented through international organizations, Japan has contributed about 46 million U.S. dollars (supplementary budget for FY2016) to international organizations and funds, including the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund (GCERF), thereby providing support for individual projects to counter-terrorism and violent extremism through these organizations.

B Criminal Justice Initiatives

The UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice and the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice are the core bodies in shaping policy on crime prevention and criminal justice in the international community. At the 26th Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (CCPCJ) held in May, an agreement was reached to establish the overall theme for the 14th UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice that will be held in Japan in April 2020, as “Advancing crime prevention, criminal justice and the rule of law: towards the achievement of the 2030 Agenda.” The cabinet also approved the convention of this UN Congress in Kyoto. Furthermore, Japan is also engaged in initiatives to improve prosecution capabilities in Southeast Asia, by funding the UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Fund of the UNODC. With regard to measures against cybercrime, Japan provides support through initiatives such as organizing a capacity building workshop for law-enforcement authorities from ASEAN countries, in cooperation with the UNODC and with financial contributions from the Japan-ASEAN Integration Fund (JAIF).

Furthermore, in July, Japan concluded the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC), in order to prevent transnational organized crime including terrorism more effectively, and to promote cooperation to fight against such crime, by establishing a global legal framework to tackle this problem (See “Special Feature: Conclusion of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC)”).

C Anti-corruption Measures

In July, Japan concluded the UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), which sets out provisions for international cooperation and measures to tackle acts of corruption, such as bribery and embezzlement of property by public officials. Japan has been conducting training to strengthen the investigation and prosecution capabilities of the authorities in developing countries that are responsible for corruption cases, through contributing to UNODC, with the aim of promoting the implementation of UNCAC. Japan has contributed approximately 90,000 U.S. dollars through the UNODC towards the operation of UNCAC Implementation Review Mechanism, which monitors the status of implementation of UNCAC in countries that are party to the convention.

Within the context of the G20, Japan was involved in the formulation of deliverables, including the High Level Principles on the Liability of Legal Persons for Corruption through the activities of the G20 Anti-Corruption Working Group.

The OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) Working Group on Bribery monitors the “Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions” to prevent and combat the bribery of foreign public officials. Japan is an active participant in this program. Japan has also supported the ADB/OECD Anti-Corruption Initiative promoted jointly by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the OECD as part of its contributions toward enhancing anti-corruption measures in the region.

D Measures to Combat Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism

In terms of measures to combat money laundering and the financing of terrorism, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an international framework that has been leading global discussions concerning the international standards that countries should implement, as well as examining measures from new perspectives. As a founding member, Japan has actively participated in these discussions. In recent years, the FATF has fulfilled a certain role in preventing the financing of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. In November, in response to repeated nuclear tests and missile launches by North Korea, member jurisdictions unanimously adopted the FATF statement that calls for the eradication of illegal financial activities by North Korea.

Japan provides assistance to Iran and other countries in ASEAN and the Sahel region in areas such as the development of legal systems, in cooperation with the UNODC to promote international efforts to disrupt money laundering and stem the flow of funds to terrorists.

E Measures to Combat Trafficking in Persons

Japan has strengthened its domestic mechanisms to combat trafficking in persons, and also proactively provides assistance to developing countries, based on “Japan's 2014 Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons.” This Action Plan was developed in order to effectively tackle trafficking in persons, which involves increasingly sophisticated and latent methods. In July, Japan became a party to the Trafficking in Persons Protocol, which was drawn up with the aim of strengthening international cooperation to protect victims and prevent as well as fight against human trafficking. This further deepened Japan's cooperation with the respective foreign governments towards the eradication of human trafficking. Furthermore, in view that human trafficking is being carried out in recent years as a means of acquiring fighters or financing for terrorist organizations, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 2388 (Trafficking of Persons in Conflict Situation) unanimously in November, and Japan declared its strong solidarity with the international community to combat this new threat.

In the respect of cooperation with international organizations, in 2017, Japan has continued to provide assistance for the repatriation and social rehabilitation program for foreign victims of trafficking in persons protected in Japan, through funding to the International Organization for Migration (IOM). Japan also funded training programs to law-enforcement authorities in Southeast Asian countries through projects organized by the UNODC.

F Measures to Combat Illicit Drug Trafficking

At the 60th session of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) held in March, Japan supported holding the Convention of a High-Level Ministerial Meeting in 2019, which is the target year for the achievement of the Political Declaration and Plan of Action on International Cooperation towards an Integrated and Balanced Strategy to Counter the World Drug Problem, formulated in 2009. Japan also explained its efforts to reduce demand and supply of drugs as a follow-up to the UN General Assembly Special Sessions (UNGASS) on the World Drug Problem held in April 2016. In the field of international cooperation, Japan works in cooperation with the UNODC to investigate and analyze synthetic drugs such as amphetamine-type stimulants and new psychoactive substances in the Asia-Pacific region, provide support for improving container control capacity of regulatory authorities at air and sea ports, and put in place measures against illicit drugs trafficking that are spreading across borders. In relation to Afghanistan, which is the world's largest region for the illegal cultivation of opium poppy, Japan has contributed 5 million U.S. dollars to the UNODC and provides active support for initiatives by the respective countries in the region, in order to strengthen border controls, promote alternative development to drug crop cultivation, and enhance capacity building of narcotics agents in cooperation with the neighboring countries.

(4) The Oceans and Seas

Japan is a maritime nation that has achieved economic growth through maritime trade and development of marine resources, and has pursued “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” For Japan, maritime rights and interests, which are the basis for economic survival, including the freedom of navigation and overflight, and development of marine resources, are of great importance toward securing peace and security. To ensure these maritime rights and interests in the long-term and in a stable manner, it is indispensable to maintain a maritime order and ensure safe maritime transport.

Furthermore, “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” which are upheld by a maritime order governed by law and rules and not by force, are essential for peace and prosperity not only of Japan, but also of the international community as a whole. To maintain and develop “Free, Open and Stable Seas,” Japan advocates the “Free and Open Indo-Pacific Strategy,” and contributes actively to maintaining and strengthening maritime order and ensuring safe maritime transport.

However, in recent years, there has been an increasing number of cases where the interests of countries clash with each other from the perspective of securing resources and national security. In particular, in the seas of Asia, there has been an increasing number of cases of tension arising from friction between countries, and the international community is closely monitoring these cases with much interest. Against this background, based on the recognition that it is necessary to fully uphold the “Three Principles of the Rule of Law at Sea” (See 3-1-6 (2)) advocated by Prime Minister Abe at the Shangri-La Dialogue in May 2014, a Leaders' Communique was released at the G7 Taormina Summit (Italy) in May 2017. This Communique contains a strong message to the international community on aspects of maritime security, such as the maintenance of a rules-based order in the maritime domain based on the principles of international law. At the Third G7 High-Level Meeting on Maritime Security held in Rome in November, Japan disseminated information about its initiatives on maritime security, including maintaining and strengthening a free and open maritime order based on the rule of law in the Indo-Pacific region. Furthermore, outside the framework of the G7, Japan has also utilized fora that are related to the East Asia Summit (EAS), including the ARF Inter Sessional Meeting on Maritime Security and the Expanded ASEAN Maritime Forum (EAMF), to actively show the importance of “Free, Open and Stable Seas” and disseminate Japan's stance and initiatives in the area of maritime security.

Combining various assistances including Official Development Assistance (ODA) by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, capacity building assistance by the Ministry of Defense, Self-Defense Forces and the Japan Coast Guard, defense equipment and technology cooperation, and Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA), Japan seamlessly supports coastal states mainly in Asia and Africa to enhance maritime law enforcement capabilities through providing patrol vessels, technical cooperation and human resource development, among other forms of assistance. In this way, Japan has been contributing to establishing and promoting the rule of law at sea.

A Order at Sea

(A) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and Related Japanese Initiatives

Also known as the “Constitution for the Seas,” UNCLOS is the very basis of a maritime order governed by law and rules. The Convention comprehensively provides principles governing uses of the sea, including the freedom of navigation and overflight over the high seas. It also stipulates the rights and obligations under international law on the development of marine resources and so on. Furthermore, this Convention led to the establishment of international organizations such as the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS), the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), and the International Seabed Authority (ISA). This Convention has been ratified by 167 countries including Japan (including some not recognized by Japan) and by the EU. As a leading maritime nation, Japan regards a maritime order, with the Convention at the core, as the cornerstone to ensure Japan's maritime rights and interests and to facilitate maritime activities. As such, Japan actively contributes to discussions at conferences including the Meetings of States Parties to the Convention and to the activities by international organizations in order to ensure that the Convention will be even more widely applied and implemented appropriately. Furthermore, Japan has done its utmost to build, maintain, and strengthen a maritime order under the Convention, by various means such as holding international symposiums on the law of the sea where eminent Japanese and foreign experts are invited (see 3-1-6).

(B) A Challenge to the Maritime Order and Response by Japan and International Community (see 1-1(2), 2-1-2(1) and 2-1-6)

a Situation surrounding the East China Sea

In the East China Sea, Chinese Government-owned vessels have continued to intrude into Japan's territorial waters around the Senkaku Islands in 2017, and active operations by Chinese military vessels and aircraft have been observed. In addition, China has been continuing unilateral resource development in the Exclusive Economic Zone and on continental shelves in areas pending delimitation. In recent years, Japan has found the Chinese side conducted a number of research in the waters surrounding Japan such as the East China Sea. Many of the research were conducted without Japan's consent or in a manner which Japan did not agree to. Given China's continued attempts to change the status quo unilaterally in the East China Sea, Japan will carefully monitor the trends and movements around its air and sea spaces, continue to respond in a firm but calm manner while making claims that should be made, and at the same time, promote cooperation with the relevant countries including the U.S. in order to achieve peace and stability in the East China Sea.

b Issues surrounding the South China Sea

In the South China Sea, China has been further conducting unilateral actions to change the status quo that increase tensions such as large-scale and rapid building of outposts as well as their use for military purposes, and attempts to create a fait accompli. Many countries including Japan have expressed concern over such China's actions. Until now, Japan has consistently supported the full enforcement of the rule of law in the South China Sea, and emphasized the importance for all the concerned parties related to the South China Sea to work towards peaceful settlement of disputes based on international law. With regard to dialogues between China and ASEAN concerning issues surrounding the South China Sea, Japan's stance is that the easing of tensions through such forward-looking initiatives should lead to non-militarization.

With regard to the arbitration proceedings based on UNCLOS concerning the conflict between the Philippines and China over the South China Sea, lodged by the Government of the Philippines, the Arbitral Tribunal made its final arbitral award on July 12, 2016. On the same day, Japan released a statement by the Foreign Minister. The statement explains that as the Tribunal's award is final and legally binding on the parties to the dispute under the provisions of UNCLOS, the parties to this case are required to comply with the award. Japan strongly expects that the parties' compliance with this award will eventually lead to the peaceful settlement of disputes in the South China Sea.

Japan has a high interest regarding the issues over the South China Sea as it relies on marine transportation for most of resources and energy, and attaches importance to the freedom of navigation and overflight in the South China Sea, as well as security of sea lanes. Cooperation within the international community is of great importance to maintain and develop “Free, Open and Stable Seas.” From this perspective, Japan supports the U.S. Freedom of Navigation Operations.

B Ensuring Safe Maritime Transport

Japan actively contributes to ensuring the freedom of navigation and overflight and safe maritime transport, through anti-piracy measures in Asia and Africa, as well as close partnership and cooperation with other countries.

(A) Anti-piracy Measures Off the Coast of Somalia and in the Gulf of Aden

a Current status of piracy and armed robbery cases

According to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB) of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the number of piracy and armed robbery cases (hereinafter referred to as “piracy cases”) off the coast of Somalia and the Gulf of Aden was 237 at its peak in 2011, but has since been on a decline, dropping to the low levels of zero in 2015, two in 2016, and nine in 2017. Despite sustained efforts in maritime law enforcement activities by the navies of the respective countries, and the implementation of self-defense measures by the merchant ships of each country, the root causes giving rise to piracy off the coast of Somalia remain unresolved. Thus, pirates off the coast of Somalia still have the intention and capability to carry out acts of piracy, and the situation requires caution.

b Extension of anti-piracy operations and record of escort activities

Since 2009, Japan has been conducting anti-piracy operations, without any interruption to the operations even once, by deploying Maritime Self-Defense Force destroyers (with coast guard officers on board) and P-3C maritime patrol aircraft to the Gulf of Aden. On November 2, 2017, the Government of Japan decided to continue anti-piracy operations based on the Act on Punishment and Countermeasures against Piracy for another year. The deployed destroyers protected 72 merchant ships on 43 escort operations between January and December 2017, while the P-3C maritime patrol aircraft carried out 243 mission flights, in which they conducted surveillance, information gathering and provided information to naval vessels of other countries.

c Promotion of international cooperation in anti-piracy measures

Japan has been making multi-layered efforts, including support for enhancement of maritime law enforcement capacity of Somalia and neighboring countries as well as for stability of Somalia, in order to solve root causes of piracy off the coast of Somalia. Japan has assisted the establishment of Information Sharing Centres in Yemen, Kenya, and Tanzania, as well as the construction of a training center (DRTC) in Djibouti for capacity building of the region, through contributing 14.6 million US dollars to a fund established by the IMO. Moreover, Japan has contributed 4.5 million US dollars to an international trust fund managed by the UN Development Programme (UNDP), through which it assists Somalia and neighboring countries in improving courts and training judicial officers, as well as repatriation to Somalia of those found guilty of piracy in the neighboring countries including Seychelles. In December 2015, Japan provided two patrol vessels to the Djibouti Coast Guard, to which the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has extended technical assistance for capacity building. In October 2017, a seminar on maritime security, co-hosted by Japan and France, was held at DRTC. With a view to promoting stability in Somalia, Japan has provided a total of 456.3 million US dollars since 2007 aimed at supporting improvement in basic services, improvement in public security through support for the police, and revitalization of domestic economy through vocational training and job creation, among other measures.

(B) Anti-piracy Measures in Asia

To encourage regional cooperation in the fight against piracy cases in Asia, Japan was at the forefront of efforts to formulate the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP), which entered into force in 2006. Each of the contracting parties provides information and cooperates on piracy cases in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, and other regions, via the Information Sharing Centre (ReCAAP-ISC) established in Singapore under the Agreement. Japan supports the activities of ReCAAP-ISC through personnel (dispatching the Executive Director and an Assistant Director) and financial contributions. From September 30 to October 7, Japan, in cooperation with ReCAAP-ISC, organized the “Capacity Building Executive Programme on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia” in Tokyo, Kanagawa, and Hiroshima for participants from the ten ASEAN Member States. In addition, efforts by Japan to counter piracy in Asia, including support for improving maritime law enforcement capabilities of coastal countries and for improving surveillance capabilities, have been highly appraised internationally.

According to figures released by the IMB, the number of piracy cases in the seas of Southeast Asia was 76 in 2017. In recent years, there have been cases of crew abduction in the Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea in Southeast Asia, posing a threat to vessels navigating in these waters. In view of this situation, Japan announced at the East Asia Summit (EAS) held in November that it will provide steady support of 15 billion Japanese yen over two years towards the realization of “Asia resilient to terrorism,” through a comprehensive approach that takes the current situation into account and which aims to improve security in the southern part of the Philippines, the Sulu Sea, and the Celebes Sea. Based on this declaration of its support, Japan will continue to actively support capacity building for maritime safety.

(5) Cyber

Year by year, as cyberspace is becoming an essential platform for people's socioeconomic activities, the scale and the influence of cyber attacks are expanding. In recent years in particular, the scale of DDoS (distributed denial of service) attacks has reached an unprecedented level, and critical infrastructure has become the target of attacks. Thus, the threat of cyber attacks is becoming more serious.

Japan is no exception, and has been increasingly exposed to the cyber threats. For instance, the Japan Pension Service suffered a cyberattack in 2015, in which as many as 1.25 million cases of personal information were stolen. Furthermore, in May 2017, a large-scale cyberattack was carried out on about 150 countries and regions including Japan, through the illegal ransomware known as “WannaCry.” As the Olympic and Paralympic Games Tokyo 2020 approaches, the cybersecurity issue is a matter of urgent priority for Japan.

Cyberattacks are characterized as being highly anonymous, advantageous to the attacker, less affected by geographical constraints and able to cross national borders easily. For these reasons, cyber security is an issue that is difficult for a single country to address alone. As such, coordination and cooperation of the international community are essential.

Against this backdrop, Japan has advanced its efforts that include contributing to the development of international rules, promoting cooperation and confidence-building measures with other countries, enhancing countermeasures against cybercrimes, and supporting capacity building, based on the “Cybersecurity Strategy” that was adopted by the Cabinet in September 2015.

In respect of developing international rules, from its standpoint that existing international law is applicable to cyber activities, Japan has taken active roles in discussions in the international community through the United Nations Group of Governmental Experts (GGE) on cyberspace and other fora.

Regarding the promotion of cooperation and confidence-building measures with other countries, Japan has held consultations and dialogues with the countries and organizations such as the U.S., the UK, France, Australia, Israel, Estonia, India, Russia, Japan-China-ROK, EU, and ASEAN. In addition, at the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) Ministerial Meeting held in August (Manila, the Philippines), Japan, together with Malaysia and Singapore, proposed the establishment of ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting on Security of and in the Use of Information and Communication Technologies. This proposal was approved at the Ministerial Meeting. Through these talks, Japan strives to exchange information about cyber-related policies and initiatives, deepens mutual understanding, enhances cooperation and fosters confidence-building measures with other countries. Furthermore, Parliamentary Vice-Minister for Foreign Affairs Manabu Horii attended the Global Conference on Cyber Space (GCCS) held in India in November, and delivered a speech about Japan's cyber diplomacy.

Regarding countermeasures against cybercrime, as the first member country in Asia of the “Convention on Cybercrime” (Budapest Convention), which is the only multilateral treaty on the use of cyberspace, Japan actively participates in its related conferences, and promotes efforts to expand the parties to the Convention, especially among Asia.

Due to the nature of cyberspace, the lack of incident handling capacity of some countries and regions may pose a risk to the entire world. Therefore, capacity building support for developing countries is important for ensuring Japan's security as well. Japan has been providing support, including the capacity building of CSIRT (Computer Security Incident Response Team)⁷ and the relevant administrative agencies mainly in ASEAN countries. Based on the “Basic Strategy of Cybersecurity Capacity Building for Developing Countries” formulated by the Government as a whole in October, Japan will continue to provide strategic and efficient assistance on an All-Japan basis.

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• 7 A general term which refers to a group to deal with computer security incidents. In order to minimize the damage caused by computer security incidents, they collect and analyze incident-related information, vulnerability information and predictive information of cyberattacks, consider solutions and measures, and cope with the incidents.

(6) Outer Space

In recent years, outer space has become congested due to the diversified use of outer space and increasing number of countries using space. In addition, increase of space debris caused by Anti-Satellite (ASAT) tests, collisions of satellites etc., has posed a growing risk to the sustainable and stable use of outer space.

In order to cope with this situation, Japan has been proactively participating in discussions on the rule-making for outer space with the aim of further establishing the rule of law. It also promotes dialogues and consultations on outer space with other countries to contribute to the efforts to ensure security in outer space.

Amid new technologies and services with regard to space utilization and applications, Japan proactively engages in space science and exploration such as the International Space Station (ISS), the overseas development of Japanese space industry, resolution of global challenges by utilizing space technologies, and support for capacity building in the field of outer space in developing countries.

A Establishing the Rule of Law in Outer Space

Based on the environmental changes related to outer space, the international community has been discussing the necessity of formulating new rules for outer space. Japan has also been actively involved, and has contributed to these discussions with the aim of establishing the rule of law in outer space. It is important to restrict actions that create space debris such as ASAT tests and to formulate rules with regard to transparency and confidence-building measures (TCBM) which will promote information exchange on outer space activities between countries. From these points of view, Japan has actively participated in discussions on the peaceful use of outer space, including the International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (ICOC) led by EU, and the development of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) Guidelines for the Long Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities. Chiaki Mukai, Japan's first female astronaut, served as the chair at the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee at the UNCOPUOS from January 2017.

B International Dialogues and Consultations on Outer Space

An increasing number of various bilateral and multilateral dialogues and consultations on outer space have been held with the aim of facilitating international cooperation and information sharing from a broad perspective and promotion of international cooperation; reflecting the growing interest of the international community concerning outer space. Japan also promotes dialogues in the fields of security, science, and industry with major space-faring nations and other countries in the Asia-Pacific Region.

The Second Japan-France Comprehensive Dialogue on Space (Tokyo) was held in March. In addition to discussions on information exchanges and the potential for cooperation in the aspects of security and civil life, the two countries also signed the “Comprehensive Space Partnership between the Competent Authorities of Japan and the French National Defence, Letter of Intent” and the “Technical Arrangement between the Competent Authorities of Japan and the Minister of Defence of the French Republic related to Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing” as the summary. In addition, the Fourth Japan-U.S. Comprehensive Dialogue on Space, the 11th Japan-U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS) Plenary Meeting and the 7th Japan-U.S. Civil Space Dialogue (Civil and Commercial Uses) (Washington, D.C.) were held in May, while the Third Japan-EU Space Policy Dialogue (Tokyo) was held in October. Japan also hosted a multilateral meeting in Kyoto, which was the 12th Meeting of the International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG) held in December.

C Space Science and Exploration, Overseas Development of Japanese Space Industry, and Contributions to Global Challenges

The progress of space exploration and application for peaceful purposes is a common benefit for all humankind, and is also significant in terms of diplomacy. In particular, the ISS is an epic project in which 15 countries participate, and has become a symbol of international cooperation in the field of outer space. From December, astronaut Norishige Kanai began his nearly six month stay on the ISS as a member of the 54th/55th Expedition Mission crew. The Japanese Experiment Module “Kibo” is capable of releasing nanosatellites, and is also used to release satellites on behalf of many emerging and developing countries with the aim of providing support for capacity building in the space field.

To acquire internationally increasing demand for satellites and launching services is an important challenge for the Japanese space industry. The Government of Japan has been promoting overseas development of its space industry through top-level sales and diplomatic missions overseas. Furthermore, through development cooperation that utilizes space technologies, Japan has been contributing to addressing global issues such as climate change, disaster risk reduction, forest conservation, and resources/energy, and to supporting capacity building in the field of space in developing countries. For example, Japan signed the Letter of Intent on space cooperation and maritime cooperation that utilizes satellite data with Indonesia in March, and has commenced studies towards the development of concrete projects in November. In relation to Thailand, Japan has signed an Exchange of Note on cooperation to develop the Continuously Operating Reference System Network based on Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology, and has also conducted demonstration experiments for satellite positioning services in Thailand, such as automatically-operated construction and farming equipments.