1. Introduction: The Fundamental Spirit of ODA--Why Reform Now?

2. Goals for Japan's ODA

3. Characteristics and Evaluation of Japanese ODA in the Past

1. Viewpoints on Priority Sectors for Assistance

2. Citizen Participation, Information Disclosure, and Development Education

3. Training, Recruiting, and Utilizing Human Resources

4. Approahes to Effective ODA Implementation System

(1) The preamble to the Constitution of Japan contains several passages that embody the fundamental spirit of the country's official development assistance (ODA) policies and programs:

We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want. . . .

We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone. . . .

Our world today is bound together by a complex array of interdependent ties including security arrangements. In a world without peace, security, or development, Japan would of course be unable to enjoy any security or prosperity itself. ODA is a vehicle through which Japan strives to cultivate a sound international environment and promote ties of goodwill with other countries. These things seem essential to Japan's own sustained existence. To the Japanese people, earnest efforts in the ODA arena exemplify the spirit of the Constitution. At the same time, ODA can be expected to help Japan secure its position as a trusted member of the international community and guarantee itself a future of peace and stability.

Starting over at the end of the last world war, Japan followed a development path that would eventually earn it status as an economic superpower. Though the self-reliance of the Japanese people should be credited as the primary force behind that achievement, heavy injections of assistance from the international community were also instrumental, especially during the early reconstruction years, a period when Japan was still struggling under serious conditions of privation. This is something we must never forget.^*1

As one country that rebuilt itself after the war with infusions of aid from the international community, Japan has a record in the ODA field that dates rather far back. As a responsible member of the international community, Japan has since the 1980s given ODA high national priority and devoted itself to enlarging its ODA programs. In fact, Japan has been the world's top donor of ODA in value terms for several years now. Though many Asian countries have registered impressive economic gains, Japanese ODA was instrumental in helping lay essential infrastructure and in other ways set the stage for their economic takeoff. Japanese ODA also has an extensive track record of success in Latin America and Africa. Overall, Japan's record in the ODA field has functioned as a key asset in helping it earn a trustworthy and honored position in the world community.

(2) Nonetheless, various trends now under way at home and abroad could affect the future of ODA. Serious fiscal strains, for instance, have put heavier pressure on Japan's ODA budget. However, in view of the foregoing observations, it seems crucial that the country maintain its ODA-oriented policy priorities in the years ahead. Furthermore, consistent policies will be essential if Japan is to effectively harness its long-running ODA record and maintain the trust of the developing world. Not only that, but the task of accommodating the fiscal restructuring drive and adapting to changed circumstances both at home and abroad will demand that Japan subject its ODA programs and policies to a phase of bold revisions and reform.

(3) Japan accounted for 18 percent of global GNP in 1995^*3. Its people today enjoy a relatively affluent standard of living. In pursuing its economic development path, Japan benefited immensely from the international system. Having accordingly gained stronger international prestige, it is now capable of significantly influencing the international system in return. Today, Japan should be striving to meet its obligations to the world by pursuing and implementing ODA reforms that reflect recent domestic and global trends, and that enable it to better satisfy the genuine needs of international society. By supporting and helping to desirable international climate of stability. What we want to emphasize here is that this will be in the interest of the Japanese people at large, now and for generations to come.

Japan currently plays a relatively marginal role in international defense and security affairs. Furthermore, compared to other industrial powers, it has provided safe haven to only a small number of refugees. Partly because Japan is limited in terms of the "public assets" it can contribute to these ends, ODA has taken on special importance as a symbol of the contribution it can make to international society. Though Japan has earned distinction as one of the world's largest ODA donors, it should be noted that in terms of GNP, it ranks a very low 19th (as of 1996) out of the 21 countries on the OECD's Development Assistance Committee (DAC). The Fiscal Restructuring Law calls for a series of annual cuts in the ODA budget up to fiscal 2000. Though Japan faces the task of improving the quality of its ODA programs, the coming budget cuts should nonetheless be held to a minimum.

(1) Humanitarian Assistance

Many developing countries continue to struggle under the grips of extreme poverty even as the world prepares to enter a new millennium. Gaps in income with the wealthier countries are still widening, and the worst conditions of privation still affect as many as 1.3 billion people--one-fifth the entire global population. About one-third of the world's children suffer symptoms of malnutrition, and about one-half the entire human population has no access to even the most basic medicines.

The world witnessed fresh economic growth following the Cold War, in parallel with the trend in globalization and the transition by many former socialist countries to free market economic systems. These forces have combined to strengthen the ties of interdependence among all countries, and have fostered new economic gains in the process. However, to a major extent, these gains are essentially manifestations of self-reliance and freedom of opportunity; in reality, the benefits of growth have not been felt by every country or every social class. The trends in globalization and economic transition have had both a bright and dark side. Certain countries have been left behind by or out of the entire process, and in others, the gulf between the rich and poor has widened. Not only that, but with the state of geopolitical flux that has followed in the wake of the Cold War, the world has actually witnessed a proliferation in regional conflicts. By some estimates, at least 26 million people worldwide were displaced by civil war in 1996. Furthermore, in many conflicts, the weaker members of society, particularly women and children, have most frequently been the victims of the carnage, which includes human rights atrocities.

In aiming for heightened global prosperity and development, we should not ignore this tragic darker side to recent trends. As fellow humans, it is only natural, and in the humanitarian spirit, that we look beyond our own national or ethnic roots and reach out to help all people afflicted by the miseries of war. Japan has for many years actively enlisted its ODA programs for the purpose of humanitarian assistance. This is one feature of ODA policy that should be given even stronger emphasis in the years ahead.

(2) Tackling Global Issues

Poverty and warfare are not the only threats to human dignity and civilization. Humanity faces an array of other formidable problems as well, from global environmental degradation, the population explosion, the food and energy crises, AIDS and other infectious diseases, to drug abuse, terrorism, crimes against international society, and now financial turmoil. In terms of ensuring peace and security for the human race and the world at large, these problems demand a concerted and far-reaching approach by the world community.

For instance, environmental problems of global scale have a serious impact at the ecosystem level, and as such, they pose a major threat to humankind and the rest of the living world. In addition to the issue of industrial waste, we have also been confronted by the urbanization-based deterioration of our living environment, cross-border acid rain, global warming, and the depletion of global forest resources and biodiversity. These pressures now threaten ecosystems and human populations worldwide, developing regions included.

To meet its obligations to future generations, international society urgently needs to unite and take tangible steps toward surmounting these global problems. Japanese ODA can and must play an instrumental role in helping members of the developing world address this challenge.

(3) Creating a Harmonious Environment of Security

Most Japanese ODA to date has been aimed primarily at developing recipients in Asia. However, in the years ahead, we should be prepared to extend assistance to countries in other regions of the world, and at varying stages of their development. Sound economic gains by developing countries would be expected to contribute to the alleviation of poverty and boost national standards of living. Once achieved, these benefits in turn would contribute to the peace and stability of international society. Conversely, widening North-South disparities could set the stage for a new, post-Cold War era of geopolitical rifts and confrontation.

To be sure, though, the world's industrial and developing countries have grown increasingly interdependent. As a consequence, economic advancement in the industrial world is now impossible unless comparable gains are registered by the developing world. Japan is no exception in this respect, and for that reason it must embrace balanced international development as one of its principal policy goals. Japan is, after all, a member of the Asian community. Economic growth by Asian countries can be expected to contribute to stability regionwide. This in turn would serve as a guarantee of continued peace and security for Japan.

Japan joined hands with other members of the world community to devise a new set of rules for the post-Cold War era and explore ways of strengthening the international system. In the years ahead, though, it should continue to take the initiative on this front by enlisting its ODA resources.

As a country that depends perhaps more heavily than any other on the international community for its own peace and prosperity, Japan should persevere in its efforts to help create a desirable international climate and promote closer ties with other states. ODA can serve as a vital diplomatic tool for that purpose.

Japan depends on the outside world for over 90 percent of its supplies of key energy and mineral resources. Most of those imports are sourced from countries in the developing world. Developing countries also account for over 40 percent of Japan's food imports. Actually, over 50 percent of all Japan's foreign trade is with such countries. In this respect, Asia at large has become ever more important to Japan.

In the interest of ensuring its continued peace and prosperity, Japan has found it essential to utilize ODA as a means of deepening its ties with developing countries in Asia and other parts of the world. Such assistance need not be concentrated in the economic dimension alone. In terms of fostering closer bonds of understanding, ODA will be even more beneficial if it is also enlisted to promote exchange in the arts and sciences.

If Japan is to actually achieve all these goals with ODA, it must allow a long-range perspective to guide its foreign policy. That approach will be in the national interest in the broad sense. In a world that has become increasingly interdependent, no longer can the national interests of any single country be contemplated in isolation from the interests of international society at large. We want to emphasize that acting in the interest of international society will--immediately or eventually--be to the benefit of the Japanese public over the long term.

(1) An emphasis on Asia, a focus in economic infrastructure projects, and support for self-help efforts can together be described as the chief features of Japanese ODA to date. Japan began extending aid to other Asian countries in connection with its war reparations following World War II. Additionally, though, Asia gained emphasis because it was the region with which Japan had the strongest historical, economic, and geographic ties. Japan stressed economic infrastructure projects on the understanding that infrastructure would be essential to the promotion of economic growth through sustainable development. Finally, drawing from its own experiences in postwar reconstruction, Japan demonstrated results with an emphasis on self-reliance in the development process.

The Japanese approach, particularly the emphasis on self-reliance, won wide international backing. In fact, the new DAC development strategy^*4 also underlines the importance of assistance that is aimed at helping recipients help themselves.

Recent years have seen Japanese ODA broaden its regional and sectoral scope. Though the focus is still on Asia, Japan is also recognized as a major aid donor outside the region. In the meantime, it has been stepping up its expertise-based aid for projects on a variety of fronts, including education and global environmental problems, health care, public hygiene and social services, human resources development, institution-building, and facility operation and administration.

Japanese aid takes several different forms, including grant assistance, yen loans, technical assistance, and assistance through multilateral institutions. This flexibility enables Japan to address varying development issues on a more comprehensive basis.

Compared to other leading donors, Japan has traditionally been guided by a set of ODA policies that placed primary emphasis on economic development while maintaining a cautious stance about the attachment of political strings. However, in the aftermath of the Cold War and the recent hot war in the Persian Gulf, this particular feature of ODA policy has been changing, notably with the establishment of Japan's ODA Charter. That is to say, Japan has begun giving certain political factors greater consideration when preparing to extend aid: specifically, questions about human rights, efforts by the candidate recipient to democratize or adopt a free market economic system, and trends in defense spending, particularly for the development of weapons of mass destruction.

Though Japan's ODA track record to date has largely met with approval, it has also been a target of serious criticism. In particular, Japanese ODA principles have been described as ambiguous, and the projects in some instances have been rated as ineffective, lacking in technical assistance or other "soft" expertise-oriented aspects, or insufficient in terms of attention to local environmental factors or the needs of local residents. ODA has not been considered much of an issue inside Japan largely because the projects themselves are carried out abroad and therefore remain relatively inconspicuous. Though some of the criticisms aimed at Japanese ODA happen to be erroneous, others nonetheless contain an truth and should be heeded if Japan is to improve the quality of its ODA programs. In addition, though, to win broader public understanding and support, the country also needs to step up its efforts in disclosure and publicity. Nonetheless, it should be noted that these issues in no way detract from the important fact that Japanese ODA has been accorded high marks for its effectiveness in many developing countries to date, and that recipients hope such assistance will be sustained.

(2) (a) In 1992, Japan established its ODA Charter through a Cabinet resolution. The Charter contains provisions and guidelines concerning official ODA principles, policies, and priorities, and as such, it has served a vital role in clarifying the country's basic philosophy and guidelines for ODA. Even so, it will be necessary to subject the Charter to regular reviews reflective of a consideration for changing circumstances at home and abroad.

The Charter is aimed at fostering the creation of a peaceful international society based on free market principles, liberty, and democracy. To that end, when preparing to extend ODA in the years ahead, Japan should continue to stress good governance^*5, respect for human rights, and headway in the democratization process. To attain the ODA objectives outlined above, though, Japan should be prepared to skillfully and resiliently formulate projects that swiftly and decisively help war-torn countries rebuild, clear away land mines, and return and resettle refugees. Japan should also promote free and democratic elections, stronger judicial systems, human rights^*6, and programs against drug abuse, terrorism and crimes against international society.

(b) Since 1978, Japan has systematically worked to expand its ODA contributions in keeping with five consecutive ODA mid-range plans. That expansionary track has been applauded by the international community as a symbol of Japan's enthusiastic commitment to the goals of development assistance. Taken in this light, the establishment of mid-range targets held special significance. However, now that the emphasis is on fiscal restructuring, the government has elected not to announce any new mid-range targets for ODA in quantitative terms. This seems to demand that the government explain more clearly to the world at large what Japan is striving to do with ODA, and what its mid-range ODA policies are. In particular, it would seem worthwhile to indicate the direction in which ODA reforms in project implementation and other areas are headed; set regional and sectoral priorities for aid over the next three to five years, especially with respect to the goals of the new DAC strategy; and outline Japan's official policies on aid for poverty alleviation and the promotion of education in specific regions.

(1) Poverty Elimination and Social Development

(2) New Directions in Infrastructure Development

Most developing countries are still heavily in need of assistance for new undertakings in economic infrastructure development. Economic advances are essential to the goal of human-centered development; in this respect, ODA-backed infrastructure projects can be expected to retain their value for some time to come.

Several countries of the developing world and particularly Southeast Asia have already reached the point of economic takeoff. As it happens, infrastructure projects in such countries have been increasingly funded by private sector capital. In the years ahead, Japan will find it necessary to improvise in its approach to backing economic infrastructure projects with ODA. For instance, it should (a) lay priority on projects that would be difficult to fund through means other than ODA, thereby encouraging the effective investment of private funds in other areas; (b) in addition to conventional forms of financial assistance, implement projects that also bundle technical assistance for facility operation and management or policy formulation, thereby accommodating the transfer of Japanese technologies; and (c) harness the insights of international development financing institutions and team up with other multilateral institutions to supply policy recommendations to developing countries.

(3) Environmental Issues

Economic gains in the developing world cannot be sustained without accompanying actions to protect the natural environment. Development and environmental protection must go hand in hand. Consequently, in pursuing future ODA projects, it is vital that Japan place more weight on measures to protect the environment. As noted earlier in the General Remarks, environmental issues have a direct bearing on the security of humankind and the rest of the living world. Japan should be actively working to enlist its ODA resources for projects in this field.

In June 1997, Japan announced at a special session of the United Nations General Assembly on Environment and Development the Initiatives for Sustainable Development Toward the 21st century. It seems advisable that the country implement its future ODA projects in keeping with these initiatives. Though it has been gradually spreading, an awareness of the importance of environmental problems remains inadequate among the countries of the developing world. In point of fact, there have not been many requests for aid of an environmental nature. By contrast, Japan recently embarked on new undertakings in environmental cooperation with China (including the Model City plan). As this example suggests, projects based on active Japanese recommendations and jointly formulated through dialogues with the recipient country will be desired. Furthermore, Japan should adopt more policies that offer developing countries incentives, for instance, comparable to the preferential interest rates now offered on yen loans for environmental projects. Actions to step up independent undertakings by developing countries themselves will be crucial to the task of resolving environmental problems. To that end, it seems advisable that such countries be encouraged through bilateral and multilateral policy dialogues to establish and implement core environmental programs.

Environmental ODA demands a comprehensive approach that looks beyond purely environmental solutions and links together various undertakings aimed at addressing population growth and poverty as well: e.g., programs in education, health care, nutrition, family planning, the supply of safe water, and public hygiene. Mid- and long-range efforts to deal with global warming will be unthinkable without the participation of the developing world. It is essential that Japan provide or strengthen its programs of assistance in the drive to fight or adapt to global warming while striving to win the understanding of developing countries in the process.^*10

To enlarge or strengthen its programs of assistance in the environmental field, Japan will find it crucial to secure Japanese personnel for the task. Though Japan now has a substantial amount of experience in the antipollution field, it does not have enough trained personnel on hand and ready to participate broadly in environmental projects at the international level. That situation demands that it enlist more of the resources and experience that local governments and private sector organizations have amassed in this field (for instance, by rounding out its roster of capable specialists, or by running training programs to facilitate technology transfers to developing countries).

In the interest of achieving a better balance between development and the environment, Japan's aid institutions have already established a set of environmental guidelines. However, those guidelines should be strengthened for ODA projects that are planned and implemented in the years ahead. Furthermore, follow-up project evaluations should devote even more emphasis to environmental factors.

(4) Assistance to Women in Development

Gender disparities characterize society in many parts of the developing world. The need to ensure that women have equal access to the benefits of development, and are capable of fully exercising their abilities as participants in the development process, has received widespread international recognition as a priority issue in development itself. What is more, the participation of women will be essential to the goal of eradicating poverty.

At the 1995 World Conference on Women, Japan announced its WID initiative, calling for stronger attention to the goals of erasing gender disparities and improving the status of women at the ODA project implementation stage. In effect, Japan declared that it would essentially step up its aid to projects in the WID field, with a focus on cooperation in three priority sectors: education, health care, and participation in economic and social affairs.

Nonetheless, from an international perspective, Japan still has room for improvement in terms of assisting women through ODA. More specifically, it should step up those types of aid aimed at helping women lead economically independent lives. Furthermore, it must strengthen its focus on gender equality (the removal of social and cultural gaps between the sexes) in aid undertakings at all levels, from large-scale projects down to small, grassroots ventures.

(5) Human Resources Development in Developing Countries

Human resources development is one of the foundations for efforts in nation-building, and an assistance field that should receive stronger emphasis in the years ahead if the developing world is to achieve sustainable development.

Several ASEAN and other Southeast Asian countries have already moved onto tracks of sustained economic growth but do not have enough trained administrators to perform their tasks in policy formulation or management. They also suffer from shortages of secondary school educators, engineers, and an entrepreneurial class essential for the support of new industries. Personnel shortages have been described as a bottleneck to growth, and a factor that could undermine the economic structure of these countries. There is no argument about the need for human resources development in many Less Developed Countries (LDCs). Japan should devote more of its energy and resources to the task of reinforcing its assistance in this field, as follows: (a) have JICA strive to gather and analyze data on personnel training country-by-country; (b) in view of their value to the goals of personnel training in the developing world, enlarge student exchange programs (with the conferral of academic degrees) while striving to balance or coordinate them with JICA programs and other forms of assistance in the arena of human resources development; (c) bundle different types of aid together more effectively, including yen loans for ventures in human resources development; and (d) deepen collaborative ties with the UNDP, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and other multilateral institutions that already command a wealth of expertise and experience in the field. Additionally, in the interest of relying more on the resources, technologies, and wisdom of the private sector, it will be vital to develop new strategies of aid, for instance, by having policy better reflect the views of the Japanese business community and in other ways working to bolster collaborative ties.

Above all, though, to accommodate exchange students and trainees from the developing world, Japan itself must have a wide range of attractive study programs and courses to begin with. To that end, Japan has room to become more open socially as well as institutionally, for instance, by revising its degree course programs, furnishing more dormitory facilities, and in other ways improving its readiness to accommodate foreign exchange students, and by promoting the employment of program graduates.

Furthermore, from the perspective of maintaining strong ties with developing countries over the long term and fostering a wider understanding of Japanese views and traditions, Japan should move beyond JICA and foreign student exchange programs and explore the idea of introducing comprehensive programs or frameworks for inviting future leaders from the developing world for long-term training internships with private companies or government agencies in Japan.

(6) Advanced Technical Cooperation

Expertise support primarily involves assisting central government authorities in developing countries with efforts to develop their legal and financial systems and tax codes and formulate their economic plans. As such, it has proven to be a highly effective form of assistance, and is also in strong demand. Expertise support also fosters closer personal interaction at the policy level, and is therefore capable of nurturing stronger bilateral ties.

However, Japan still suffers inadequacies in its frameworks for the provision of this type of assistance, particularly in terms of trained personnel. Therefore, if it is to enlarge its presence in the arena of expertise support, Japan will above all face the task of expanding its reserves of qualified personnel. Even assuming the country had access to enough qualified Japanese individuals, it does not as yet have an effective system in place to find them. To deal with this situation, Japan should encourage its government agencies, think tanks, universities, and private companies to assist it in recruiting essential personnel, and set up a "human capital bank" to maintain a roster of individuals qualified for expertise support work in specific developing countries or aid sectors. Domestic support frameworks will also be vital. To reinforce its backup/support programs for new recruits or specialists already on assignment, it would be appropriate for the country to set up domestic support committees for that purpose and on a per-project basis. Certain long-range measures will also be essential, including programs in Japan that train recipient-country staff in the Japanese language and other subjects so that they can serve as effective partners in the implementation of expertise support projects back in their home country.

The role of specialist team leaders will be especially crucial in this field. To train effective team leaders for specific projects and otherwise, developing countries should harness the resources and expertise of their private business sectors for comprehensive programs of a business school nature.

In the meantime, however, it would also be in the interest of fostering the effectiveness of aid if Japan were to codify its own experiences in economic and social development and share that knowledge with specialists engaged in the provision of expertise support.

Help in overhauling and upgrading their financial and monetary systems will be essential to several countries across Asia that have recently been hit by financial turmoil and currency instability. It will therefore be vital to work together with multilateral institutions and provide such countries ODA-backed technical assistance in the areas of economic development, monetary policy administration, and the training of financial sector personnel. By providing expertise support and technical assistance in these areas, Japan will be able to effectively contribute to stronger Asian financial systems over the medium and longer term.

(7) Forming a Global Partnership

(8) Cross-Border Regional Cooperation

Regionalism and the forces for regional cooperation and consolidation have been gaining strength in the wake of the Cold War. These trends demand an approach that takes into account the cross-border, region-wide effectiveness of aid projects (as in the development of the Mekong River basin).

Still, in view of the fact that its approach has long been based on the notion of providing aid to individual countries, Japan may find it difficult to accommodate demand for economic assistance on a regional scale. It therefore seems advisable that Japan strive to improve the cross-border, regional effectiveness of its ODA programs by taking action to remedy this shortcoming and at the same time improving its ties of communication with the World Bank and other international lenders, including those active at the regional level.^*14 Furthermore, in the years ahead, it should explore the idea of teaming up with such multilateral institutions and actively pursuing development programs with a region-wide scope.

(9) Conflict Prevention, Postwar Recovery and Development Assistance

(10) Emphasizing the Role of the Private Sector

In the now fast-growing East Asian economies, ODA surpassed the influx of private investment during the 1980s. Now, though, the influx of private capital conversely measures more than threefold the scale of ODA. In terms of setting the stage for sustainable development, the private sector has an extremely important role to play. To maximize the effectiveness of limited ODA resources, Japan should therefore place even more emphasis on the pump-priming role of ODA as a means of stimulating trade and investment, and develop tangible strategies that utilize ODA for that purpose.

Specific measures would conceivably include financial assistance for the development of private sector infrastructure and distribution systems, the cultivation of a more attractive investment climate, the assignment of specialists versed in those fields, and assistance aimed at fostering the privatization of state-run enterprises. Needless to say, it will also be necessary to actively apply the vitality, wisdom, and manpower of the private sector to these ends.

(1) Citizen Participation

(2) Disclosure of Information

Adequate disclosure will be essential to the goal of encouraging the public's involvement in, understanding of, and backing for the country's ODA programs. For some time, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) has regularly published an ODA White Paper, Report on the Implementation of Japanese ODA (both annual documents), and an Annual Evaluation Report. In addition, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) now releases a paper, Current Trends and Issues in Economic Cooperation, while JICA and the OECF both produce and release their own annual reports.

In a 1996 report concerned with Japanese aid, DAC described the White Paper on ODA as one of the most comprehensive and complete of its kind to be produced by any DAC member country, and considered it noteworthy that most of the information in the White Paper had been made available not only in Japanese, but also in English.

Though Japan has made progress in this area, the Japanese public will need even more information if it is to participate effectively in the ODA project planning and implementation phases. Given that reality and in view of the widening array of available media, Japan must do more in the arena of disclosure.

The Japanese Diet is scheduled to deliberate a new bill on disclosure in the not-too-distant future. In view of the trend toward heightened disclosure throughout the government, it seems essential that the country also begin making preparations for disclosure of more information on ODA affairs.

In particular, the government and its aid institutions will need to move forward with the development of information databases on aid project content and related information on developing countries, and make those databases available to the public over the Internet. This approach will be vital not only in terms of disclosure, as such, but also in terms of fostering heightened back-office efficiency. MoFA and Japan's aid institutions will also find it imperative to appoint information officers and strive to publicize their open position on disclosure and frameworks for accountability.

Compared to its progress in furnishing information on projects in grant assistance, yen loans, and JICA technical assistance, Japan has been relatively slow in making information available on other types of ODA, particularly projects run by various government agencies and multilateral institutions. To generate improved public understanding and support, the government must make more information widely available to the Diet and to the public at large.

Though interest in international assistance has been growing at the community level, information access remains a serious problem. To address and remedy the information gaps, the government would be advised to better harness the abilities of its regional JICA training centers around the country. In addition, to strengthen the links between local governments and district associations for international exchange, it should consider developing regional versions of its highly popular, Tokyo based Plaza for International Cooperation.^*18

(3) Development Education

The Japanese public at large is today broadly concerned about development, the environment, peace, and other issues of global scale. Development education^*19 has been described as the foundation for an improved public awareness and understanding of the importance of international assistance. The time has arrived for Japan to take tangible steps toward improving its programs in development education.

One approach that would conceivably help to improve the quality of development education at all levels, including schools, in-company training and adult education programs, would be to encourage the radio and television networks to air lecture-style programs on development education themes. Another would be to organize academic societies with a focus on international development.

As pointed out in a March 1997 government auditors' report, most of the ODA-related sections in Japanese school textbooks today still contain factual errors and misunderstandings that in some ways hamper an accurate portrayal of ODA. It therefore seems imperative that the government more actively strive to provide the authors of such texts with access to accurate information.

Several steps would help to improve development education in school classrooms. One, of course, would be to develop more suitable classroom materials for this purpose. Additionally, though, and in the interest of having classes echo the insights of firsthand experience, it would be extremely valuable to invite specialists, aid volunteers, or NGO personnel with experience in developing countries to deliver class lectures.

The climate for ODA and activity by NGOs has changed significantly since 1987, the year a council on development education released its report. In fact, MoFA should consider sponsoring a similar forum again, with the assistance of other ministries and agencies, and with the broad-based participation of educators and NGO personnel. Furthermore, MoFA would be advised to strengthen its collaboration with the Ministry of Education and strive to give development education a solid place in the country's academic curriculum.

It is also recommended that the government add development education related ventures to the list of activities eligible for NGO project subsidies, and consider other ways of providing assistance to NGOs or NGO affiliates that are engaged in this field. Another worthwhile approach would be to strengthen the level of collaboration by local governments and district associations for international exchange, for instance, by setting up booths for the dissemination of informational materials on development education, and by fully utilizing domestic JICA offices for improvements in development education at the community level.

In most cases at present, school educators who travel abroad on study tours at public expense tend to go to other industrial countries. If the government is to foster a better understanding of development issues, however, it seems advisable to include developing countries on the itineraries for such tours.

(1) Current Trends of Human Resources in Development Assistance

Japan has suffered shortages of aid personnel for quite some time. Though it has made various efforts to compensate, it still needs to make sweeping improvements. Public interest in international assistance has been mounting in recent years; furthermore, several university graduate schools have set up course study programs on development-related themes, effectively contributing to a heightened supply of human resources. Nonetheless, the country has yet to achieve what could reasonably be termed a proper balance in supply and demand.

It has also been some time since Japan became a leading donor of aid. However, despite its international status and the scale of its aid budget, compared to other donors Japan still has far fewer of its citizens working in UN agencies or other multilateral institutions. As a responsible member of international society, it would seem only natural for Japan to have more of its citizens actively involved in the affairs of multilateral institutions. Needless to say, it is urgently important that Japan develop more human resources capable of playing a role in international affairs, and place them on assignments with multilateral institutions. Having more Japanese nationals at such institutions would be expected to contribute to a consequent increase in the availability of human resources for undertakings in the field of ODA. To this end, Japan should have more qualified personnel registered with its human resources network on the recommendation of ODA institutions, assign more Japanese personnel to multilateral institutions, and foster stronger personal connections and exchange by encouraging its ODA institutions to recruit Japanese nationals who have a background of service with multilateral institutions.

In the field of research on topics in development assistance, papers and dissertations by Japanese researchers are still not frequently cited by the more authoritative sources of scholarly literature. Accordingly, it seems advisable that Japan strive to cultivate more internationally competitive researchers in the field. Exchange and networking between researchers and businesspeople is quite pronounced in Europe and North America. Furthermore, advanced research typically provides a theoretical basis of support for the policy positions taken by national governments and multilateral institutions in these parts of the world.

Public interest in development issues has been steadily rising. Not only that, but more and more people have become involved in development-related affairs through the activities of NGOs, and the opportunities for participation in various forms have also been multiplying. Even so, only a limited number of organizations are currently capable of harnessing the knowledge and talent of people who have an interest in development issues. That essentially includes JICA, the OECF, and a small handful of NGOs, think tanks, and consultancies. This situation, taken together with the inadequacies characterizing its frameworks for the implementation of aid, suggests Japan needs to explore bolder measures that will enable it to lure more qualified human resources into the aid field.

To erase disparities in aid personnel supply and demand on the basis of sweeping improvements of the kind described above, it will be crucial to provide more job opportunities for people striving to become involved in the field of development assistance. In addition, it will be important to enlarge the mutual interfaces (opportunities for contact and exchange) among institutions of higher learning, aid institutions, and people actually engaged in ODA field service.

Development needs have evolved significantly over time and in tandem with changes in the international setting. Japan in turn needs to flexibly and swiftly adapt its training programs accordingly. Development assistance now cuts broadly across many different fields, each typically demanding sophisticated levels of professional expertise. Therefore, unless it can establish a setting that allows for the free movement of personnel between service in the field and training or research, Japan will find it difficult to cultivate enough internationally qualified individuals.

Language training will be essential if Japanese personnel in tomorrow's aid setting are to effectively play a leadership role. It is therefore recommended that they have adequate communication skills: English at a minimum, and ability in the local language, if possible. Unfortunately, training in this particular dimension remains seriously deficient.

(2) Centers for the training and utilization of aid personnel

Improving the quality of educational programs at the graduate level will be vital. To that end, we recommend that the country's graduate schools standardize their development-related course curricula and offer equivalent credit for comparable courses completed at other institutions. We also recommend that action be taken to improve their collaborative ties with JICA, the OECF, other aid institutions, and think tanks focused in the development field.

Most Japanese institutions involved with aid policy have (to date) been in the practice of cultivating generalists. One potential shortcoming of that approach is that such personnel will be less prepared to adapt with the ongoing specialization trend in development affairs. It therefore seems all the more vital that the country strive to cultivate more development assistance specialists by placing emphasis on exhaustive programs of mid-career training and devoting extra attention to placement strategies that enable personnel to further hone their skills and expertise. Moreover, the government should actively encourage more reliance on field service internships and enlist more personnel from the private sector.

Japan's aid institutions need to enlist more people who already have experience as JOCVs or as members of NGOs. (Also, in terms of recruiting and assigning more personnel, it will be important to rely on competitive bidding procedures of the kind that JICA now utilizes to find and hire specialists in international assistance on an individual-contract basis.) In the years ahead, local viewpoints will have more influence in aid affairs, including the formulation stages for country programs. Hence, in the interest of effectively drafting aid plans for specific sectors in specific countries, coordinating views with recipient countries, other donor countries, or donor institutions, and engaging in effective project management, Japan should actively explore the idea of assigning program officers to the overseas offices of its aid institutions.

Additionally, in the interest of fostering heightened public participation in ODA affairs, the country should recruit and enlist personnel from a broad cross-section of society for specialist assignments through JICA. To that end, though, it will need to enlarge its specialist registration and recruitment programs. On top of that, the government will need to engage in impartial screenings during the specialist selection or recommendation process, monitor and otherwise provide support to specialists during the course of their assignments, and overhaul the framework for post-project evaluations.

Furthermore, as a means of reinforcing its country-by-country approach to the provision of aid, Japan will find it crucial to cultivate more specialists on given countries or regions. As one way of recruiting or training such future specialists, it should bring in regional experts from universities and other research-oriented institutions, have them participate in the aid process, and then draw heavily on their wisdom and insights.

As suggested earlier, it is hoped that steps will be taken in the years ahead to assist NGOs in upgrading their structure, personnel, and funding base so that they will mature into effective organizations for the employment of people who want to be involved in the field of development assistance. Japanese institutions engaged in the arenas of aid policy, project implementation, and education should be prepared to actively harness the manpower resources offered by NGOs.

(3) Networking Among Higher Education Organizations, Aid Implementing Institutions, and Policymaking Institutions

Cultivating personnel with extensive levels of sophisticated expertise and on-the-job experience will demand that the country allow its aid personnel to move more freely between actual field service, education or training, and research.

For instance, it will be imperative to allow workers in the field to engage in research and apply their findings to their actual work. Conversely, researchers and training instructors should at times have opportunities to engage themselves in field service and apply their experiences to their research or training techniques. Allowing its aid personnel to pursue their careers on the basis of such mobility will in turn enable Japan to cultivate a team of development professionals capable of competitively exercising their skills at the international level.

To do this, though, the government should study expanding graduate school training programs for public servants and other professionals; setting up graduate student internship programs within the offices of NGOs, Japanese embassies, and aid institutions abroad; and assigning university or think tank researchers specializing on development themes to positions in public policy-making institutions or the offices of aid institutions and embassies abroad.

In particular, to ensure itself a supply of high-level specialists, the government should have its professional organizations and think tanks, including universities and other institutions of research and higher learning, as well as the recently established National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies, pursue closer ties with related research institutions and think tanks abroad. In addition, it would be advisable to strengthen that institutional network by having the Foundation for Advanced Studies on International Development (FASID, an entity established for the training of advanced-level aid personnel) serve as the network hub.

Finally, Japan should strive to effectively satisfy the personnel needs of its aid institutions, training institutions, and policymaking institutions by establishing a comprehensive "human resources databank" for specific countries and sectors, headed by the Institute for International Cooperation (a JICA organization).

(1) Frameworks for the Establishment of Country-specific aid Programs

(2) Collaboration with the Private Sector and Multilateral Institutions