Adopted by the cabinet in June 1992, Japan's ODA Charter calls attention to four key principles for the implementation of aid: (i) pursuit in tandem of environmental conservation and development; (ii) avoidance of any use of ODA for military purposes or for aggravation of international conflicts; (iii) full attention to trends in military expenditures, the development and production of mass destructive weapons and missiles, export and import of arms, etc.; and (iv) full attention to the promotion of democratization and introduction of a market-oriented economy, and the situation regarding basic human rights and freedoms in the recipient country.

It is imperative that Japan enforces the above principles in a timely and appropriate manner while monitoring conditions of relevance in each recipient country. However, it has to be kept in mind that each country has its own set of economic and social conditions and foreign relations to deal with. Noting these realities as well as various principles of the UN Charter (especially those of sovereign equality and non-intervention in domestic matters) the ODA Charter states that ODA should be implemented, taking into account comprehensively each recipient country's request, its socio-economic conditions, and Japan's bilateral relations with the recipient country.

All of the Charter's principles (particularly the third and fourth) are concerned with issues that have a crucial bearing on recipient countries' security and internal affairs. Effectively dealing with problems in these areas will be out of the question unless the recipient countries themselves acknowledge and show initiative in dealing with them on its own, whether or not it is urged to do so by Japan or other members of the international community. It is not for Japanese policy to automatically suspend or revise aid, but instead, to express its concerns and urge remedial actions. This is the reason why the third principle in the ODA Charter emphasizes adequate attention to "trends."

Whenever a recipient country demonstrates progress in democratization, the protection of human and civil rights, in reducing military spending, or in other areas of relevance, it is important that Japan actively encourages additional headway by bundling aid with other diplomatic incentives. Conversely, if trends are not moving in a favorable direction, Japan will take appropriate action as necessary following a review of the country's past status in the areas of security, economic performance, and social development.

Ordinary citizens, and particularly the poor, will be affected mainly in the event aid is reduced or suspended in compliance with the Charter principles. However, in no way does Japan intend to make life harder for people in poverty. Hence, whenever aid is reduced or suspended, Japanese policy is to devote special priority to the implementation of emergency and humanitarian aid.

Several examples of Japanese action in keeping with principles of the ODA Charter are discussed below. They chiefly involve favorable trends in South Africa, undesirable trends in India and Pakistan, a reversal of undesirable trends in China and Nigeria, and developments in Myanmar following an undesirable change in direction.

With the inauguration of the Mandela administration in 1994, the Republic of South Africa succeeded in replacing the apartheid regime with a democratic dispensation of national integration and coexistence. To support the democratic transition of South Africa, Japan has provided it with development assistance chiefly in the form of projects for poverty alleviation and training programs for the personnel who will lead that country's future. On the occasion of the inauguration of the new Mbeki administration in June 1999, Japan announced that it would endeavor to maintain its support to South Africa on a substantial scale.² This commitment was based on recognition of the importance of further promoting national reconciliation and economic development under the Reconstruction and Development Program, poverty eradication and the economic and social reforms aimed at the improvement of place for black people, all of which were undertaken under former President Mandela.

Since there had for some time been concern about India's nuclear policies and doubts about Pakistan's nuclear development, Japan had enlisted every opportunity for dialogue with both countries to urge refrain from developing and deploying nuclear weapons as well as missile systems. Further, Japan has repeatedly urged them to adhere to both the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear weapons (NPT) and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). Although Japan also appealed to India through high level government channels to show more restraint in its nuclear policy after the inauguration of the Vajpayee administration in March 1998, India conducted nuclear tests in May 1998. Following that event, the Japanese government sent a special emissary to Pakistan and enlisted various other means to encourage Pakistan not to counter with a test explosion of its own. However, despite these efforts, Pakistan also conducted nuclear testing at the end of May, 1998.

Japan immediately lodged strong protests against the nuclear tests of India and Pakistan, and again urged them strongly to suspend their activities in nuclear testing and development and quickly accede to the CTBT and NPT. Additionally, in accordance with the principles of the ODA Charter, Japan decided on economic measures against both countries by suspending all new grants and yen loans other than grants for grassroots projects and for emergency or humanitarian purposes. On top of that, Japan decided to more carefully consider against proposals of financing to either country by multilateral development banks. Since then, both countries have been demonstrating some desirable actions, for instance, by expressing their positive attitude toward adherence to the CTBT at the UN General Assembly in September 1998. Japan is determined to have dialogues with both countries and urge them to show progress in the nuclear non-proliferation field.

China has made efforts to implement economic and other reforms based on its open, reform policy since 1979. In terms of the ODA Charter perspective on transition to a market-oriented economy, it has demonstrated sustained progress. Most recently, in March 1999 China implemented a set of constitutional amendments that explicitly allow various forms of private ownership and the distribution of assets. Further, for some years now it has been stepping up its efforts to deal with problems on the environmental front. However, despite repeated warnings from Japan, in 1995 China initiated nuclear tests. This forced Japan to suspend all new grant aid in August 1995, with the exception of aid for grassroots projects and for emergency or humanitarian purposes. After its last test in July 1996, China declared a moratorium on nuclear testing, and signed the CTBT the following September. In response to these actions, Japan resumed grant aid to the country in March 1997.

Japan has enlisted various opportunities to obtain China's understanding with regard to the position taken by the ODA Charter on military spending, and has urged that China improve the transparency of its defense policies and activities. On the issue of transparency, China has actually shown a measure of progress. For example, in 1995 it published China: Arms Control and Disarmament, followed by China's National Defense in 1998. On August 2, 1999 China test-launched a new type of long-range missile. Japan described the test as counter to the efforts by the international community for progress in the non-proliferation and disarmament of weapons of mass destruction. The Japanese government will continue urging that China improve the transparency of its defense policies.

In terms of democratization and respect for basic human rights, China's crackdown on democratization activists since late 1998 was a matter of concern. On the whole, however, China has shown increasing attention to human rights, as demonstrated by its signing of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1997 and 1998 respectively, and adjustment of the domestic legal system including constitutional amendments that stipulate an explicit adherence to the rule of law, changes to the criminal and criminal procedural law, and revisions to local election laws. Japan is prepared to assist China to advance its democratization process in such fields as the modernization of its legal system. Furthermore, it has been working through various fora to encourage additional Chinese progress in the dimensions of human rights and democratization.

In 1993, Nigeria moved away from democracy as General Abacha (its then-head of state) installed a military government, suspended the national assembly, and disbanded all political parties. Japan responded to this movement in March 1994 by suspending all new aid in principle, with the exception of aid for emergency humanitarian purposes. However, following the sudden death of General Abacha in June 1998, Nigeria held presidential elections in February 1999 to place its government back under civilian rule, and elected Olusegun Obasanjo into office as its new president. Japan welcomed this return to democratic principles and, after the process of transition to civilian rule was completed in May 1999, began studying a new aid program for Nigeria.

Japan had suspended its ODA to Myanmar in principle since 1988 due to political upheaval triggered by the public movement for democratization and following the military coup in Myanmar. After Myanmar authorities released dissident leader Daw Aung San Suu Kyi from conditions of house arrest in 1995, Japan, however, restarted its ODA on a limited basis based on a policy in which Japan would consider and implement mainly, for the time being, those projects committed before 1988 and projects which would directly benefit the people of Myanmar by addressing their basic human needs, on a case-by-case basis. In effect, under current conditions, Japan cannot provide substantive levels of aid as long as Myanmar fails to demonstrate significant gains in democratization or improvements in the protection of human rights.

In accordance with that policy shift, in March 1998 Japan decided on disbursement of ¥2.5 billion in loan assistance solely for safety-related repairs to facilities built as part of the Yangon International Airport Expansion Project which is one of the pre-existing yen-loan aid projects (E/N signed in FY1983 and FY1984). Also, in July 1998 it extended grant aid for increased food crop production to help Myanmar grow crops replacing traditional narcotics cultivation. Further, in May 1999, under the Grant Aid Scheme for Child Health, Japan extended grant aid through UNICEF to supply the country with vaccines, essential medicines, etc. for improved maternal health-care services.

Next Page