Section 2. Toward the Construction of a New International Framework
1. Building a More Peaceful and Secure World
1-1. Ensuring Japan's Security
Japan's security policy consists of three main pillars: (a) firmly maintaining the Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements; (b) securing its own appropriate defense capability; and (c) making active diplomatic efforts to secure international peace and security.
(1) The Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements
(a) The Significance of the Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements
Despite the end of the Cold War, a large number of uncertainties still exist in the international community. Under these circumstances, the U.S. deterrence based on the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty remains necessary in order for Japan, with its policies of adhering to the three non-nuclear principles and maintaining the minimum defense capability, to benefit from peace and prosperity. The Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements play an important role in securing the U.S. presence and engagement which is a stabilizing factor for the Asia-Pacific region. Moreover, the Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements also serve to give credibility to Japan's basic policy of not becoming a military power capable of threatening other countries.
Based on the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty, between 45,000 and 48,000 U.S forces personnel are stationed in Japan (Note).
The Government of Japan has been voluntarily making utmost efforts to bear the stationing costs of U.S. forces in order to support the U.S. presence. In FY 1993, the Government of Japan bore \561.2 billion of the stationing expenses of the U.S. forces in Japan. The U.S. Government highly values these Japanese efforts. In particular, since there has been a growing trend in the U.S. Congress to cut defense spending, the efforts by Japan to bear the stationing costs of U.S. forces have been increasingly important to ensure the presence of U.S. forces in this region.
The influence of the U.S. military activities near residents around the U.S. military facilities and areas has been a problem. In an attempt to harmonize the objective of the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty, which is to ensure a smooth stationing of U.S. forces on one hand, and the desire of neighboring residents to alleviate their influence as much as possible on the other, the Government of Japan has made continued efforts to promote the realignment and consolidation of U.S. military facilities and areas in Okinawa. In addition, some progress has been made on night landing practices of carrier-borne aircrafts in Iwojima, and on improvement of the environment in the U. S. facilities and areas.
(b) Cooperation With the United States in Security and Defense Areas
Against the backdrop of the Japanese technological improvement in recent years, the U.S. has shown a growing interest in mutual technology exchange in the defense area, and it has become important for Japan to respond to this situation in order to secure the effective management of the Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements. From this point of view, a joint research program on the ducted rocket engine is under way and other joint research programs on five items, including advanced steel technology, are under consideration. Moreover, the ongoing cooperative development of the fighter support experimental (FS-X) of the Air Self-Defense Force brings together the outstanding technologies of the United States and Japan, and holds a great significance in promoting technology exchanges between the two countries.
Furthermore, given the risk of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction in the international community after the Cold War, the Clinton Administration has announced its policy of developing the Theater Missile Defense (TMD) that protects U.S. forward deployed forces, allies and friendly nations from missile attacks. The U.S. Government is calling on its allies to cooperate over TMD Initiative, and the Government of Japan will evaluate the significance of TMD in the Japanese defense plan, and for that purpose, is now consulting with the United States at the working level.
(2) Improvement of Japan's Defense Capability
Japan, under its Peace Constitution, is making efforts to develop a moderate yet effective defense capability based on the basic principles of maintaining an exclusively defense-oriented policy and of not becoming a military power capable of threatening other nations. It is important for Japan to make maximum efforts in this area, in order to enhance the credibility and effectiveness of the Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements.
(3) Diplomatic Efforts to Ensure International Peace and Security
As the international community seeks to build a new security framework in the post-Cold War era, Japan is naturally required to make positive contributions in this field. Such efforts are also extremely important for Japan in terms of ensuring its own security. Particularly important are efforts to ensure security of the Asia-Pacific region, as well as to promote international cooperation for arms control and disarmament, non-proliferation and the U.N. Peace-keeping Operations.
1-2. Security of the Asia-Pacific Region
It is essential that the security of the Asia-Pacific region be considered from a different standpoint from that prevailing in Europe, because in the Asia-Pacific region, the historic background and geopolitical conditions, as well as the perception of threats and the geographical distribution of military forces all vary from one country to another. Given these characteristics of the region, it is important to advance the following efforts in parallel and interrelate them in order to ensure the security of the Asia-Pacific region.
(1) Maintaining the Presence and Engagement of the U.S. Forces
The presence and engagement of the U.S. forces based on the Japan-U.S. Security Arrangements is the largest stabilizing factor in this region, and a larger number of countries in this region have come to share this perception. The accommodating attitude being adopted by ASEAN countries toward the activities of U.S. forces in this region reflects such a widely shared view.
(2) Promoting Regional Cooperation
While favorable moves for lowering tensions have been seen in some parts of the Asia-Pacific region after the end of the Cold War, there still remain unsolved problems and unsettled regional confrontations and conflicts, such as the issue of the Northern Territories of Japan, the situation in the Korean Peninsula, particularly North Korea's suspected development of nuclear weapons, and the South China Sea issue. To ensure long-term stability in this region, it is primarily important to make further efforts of cooperation and coordination, whether bilaterally or among the interested countries according to respective situations. Examples of such efforts are the efforts made by the countries concerned to alleviate the tension in the South China Sea and bilateral dialogues like the Sino-Japan security dialogue that began in 1993. In addition, from a long-term perspective, it is also essential to promote cooperation among the countries concerned with a view to ensuring stability in Northeast Asia.
(3) Promoting the Security Dialogue of the Entire Region
Moreover, being motivated by such common security concerns as the continuation of the U.S. presence and engagement, and the future roles of Japan and China, there has emerged in the region, a growing interest in a region-wide political and security dialogue aimed at enhancing the transparency of policies of respective countries and mutually promoting a sense of security. In this context, a full fledged political and security dialogue covering the whole region has been launched, mainly through the ASEAN Post-Ministerial Conferences in line with the Japanese proposal. Furthermore, it has been decided that the "ASEAN Regional Forum," which includes China and Russia as participants will start in 1994.
(4) Encouraging Economic Developments
The Asia-Pacific region is relatively stable compared to other regions, due to the fact that the rapid economic development of Southeast Asia and other countries in the region has reinforced the political stability and social resilience. In that sense, efforts to maintain and further promote the economic development of this region are vital.
1-3. Efforts Toward Peace and Japan's Contribution
Regional conflicts are now not only those between nations, but there is also increasing danger of conflicts within a nation, rooted in ethnic, religious and historical reasons. Under such situations, the international community is deploying various efforts to maintain and build peace, with the United Nations as its main vehicle, through such means as prevention of conflicts, political reconciliation, U.N. Peace-keeping Operations (PKOs), humanitarian assistance, and reconstruction and development assistance. Particularly, building upon, among others, the experiences in Cambodia, there is a growing recognition in recent years of the importance of linking peace-keeping/building with humanitarian assistance and reconstruction and development aid.
Japan is cooperating positively with such international efforts. Financially, Japan is extending assistance such as aid for Cambodian reconstruction, assistance for Palestinians in the Middle East and humanitarian emergency aid in Bosnia-Herzegovina. As intellectual contributions, Japan took initiatives in establishing the U.N. Register of Conventional Armaments to increase transparency in the transfer of conventional weapons, as well as in drafting the code of conduct on the environment in the Middle East during the multilateral negotiation of the Middle East peace process. Japan also proposed a gradual ban of nuclear tests with the ultimate aim of abolishing nuclear weapons, and hosted in April 1993 the Kyoto Disarmament Conference of the United Nations, the fifth hosted by Japan in a row. In terms of personnel contribution, under the Law Concerning Cooperation for United Nations Peace-keeping Operations and Other Operations (the International Peace Cooperation Law) enacted in June 1992, Japan is taking a full part in the U.N. Angola Verification Mission II (UNAVEM II), the U.N. Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), and the U.N. Operations in Mozambique (ONUMOZ). Moreover, concerning the relation between peace and development, Japan makes it an established policy under the four principles of the Official Development Assistance (ODA) Charter, to examine, in extending ODA, the overall conditions surrounding the respective recipient countries, taking into account their efforts toward democratization, their security environment, as well as the international situation in general. Thus, while Japan is positively participating in the process of achieving world peace and stability from a global perspective, Japan is required to provide further cooperation commensurate with its international standing in settling regional conflicts.
(2) Coping with Regional Conflicts
Below is a more specific overview of how the international community has tackled such developments as the Middle East peace and the establishment of a new government in Cambodia, and what role Japan played in these processes.
(a) Middle East Peace
In the wake of the agreement reached between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in September, a ministerial conference to support Middle East peace was held in Washington D.C. in October with the initiative of the U.S. Government in order to implement this agreement and mobilize international support to translate it into actual peace. This conference obtained participations of 46 countries and international organizations, including Japan, and discussed the form of assistance from the international community. As a result, an assistance package of $600 million was pledged to the Palestinians for the first year, $1 billion in the first two years and nearly $2 billion in the coming five years. In addition, an ad hoc liaison committee was formed as a coordinating organization to implement this assistance effectively. The World Bank was designated as its secretariat and Japan, the United States, the European Union (EU), Canada, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a representative of the Nordic countries and Russia were to participate in the committee.
To support the improvement of the socio-economic situation of the Palestinians under occupation and the fostering of self-governing ability toward the future interim self-government, Japan has been extending assistance through the U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) and the U.N. Development Programme (UNDP). And in view of the new development, Japan announced in the above-mentioned ministerial conference its intention to offer up to $200 million in the coming two years to assist the Palestinians.
Moreover, in the Middle East peace process, the organizational meeting for multilateral negotiations on regional issues started in January 1992, which involve major extra-regional parties such as Japan, the United States, Russia and the European Union. The objective of the negotiations was to foster confidence among the parties in conflict, by complementing and supporting their bilateral negotiations, and through a search for means of regional cooperation together with extra-regional countries. While there was no progress in the bilateral tracks, the multilateral negotiation assumed the role of a safety-net. However, after progress was made in the bilateral negotiations in September, specific regional cooperation projects are being discussed. As the negotiations develop, the multilateral negotiations are expected to play a more important role as a forum to discuss intra-regional and external relations for the peace and prosperity of the Middle East. In the multilateral negotiations, Japan is playing a central role by chairing the Environmental Working Group, and serving as the co-organizer in the working groups on economic development, water resources and refugees. In addition, in order to promote inter-regional cooperation with a long-term vision, Japan has proposed to formulate a code of conduct on the environment as a common basis for the region to protect the environment, and an action plan to promote regional development through tourism.
(b) Cambodia
In Cambodia, the presence of a comprehensive peace framework, namely the Paris Peace Agreements, and the support led by the United Nations played a major role in the new start of the resuscitated state of Cambodia. Moreover, the international community's will to support the future reconstruction was confirmed at such occasions as the International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia (ICORC). At its first meeting in September, it was confirmed that nearly the full amount of assistance pledged at the Ministerial Conference on Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia in June 1992 (a total of $880 million) would be disbursed in the near future. At the same time, an assistance of $120 million was newly announced.
As to Japan, it played a major role in helping formulate a peace agreement among the various Cambodian factions in the process leading to the conclusion of the Paris Agreements. In addition, as the Pol Pot faction became less cooperative to the peace process, Japan made diplomatic efforts in cooperation with Thailand to persuade the faction. Moreover, Japan participated in the Peace-keeping Operations in Cambodia as its first full-fledged participation in the PKO [see(3),(a) below]. Furthermore, Japan chaired the Ministerial Conference on Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia and the ICORC, and played a central role in the reconstruction of Cambodia by announcing in this Ministerial Conference the largest assistance among the participating countries and international institutions, and by steadily implementing this. Japan will be hosting the second meeting of the ICORC in Tokyo in March 1994. Other than the above, Japan is extending wide-ranging assistance to Cambodia such as cooperation to improve the country's judicial system through the United Nations as well as cultural cooperation, for example, through the hosting of the "International Conference on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historical Site of Angkor" in October 1993.
As seen above, for attaining peace in Cambodia, Japan is playing a central role in diverse areas.
(3) The Role of the United Nations
(a) Peace-keeping Operations (PKOs)
Reflecting the complex nature of international conflicts in the post-Cold War era, the activities of Peace-keeping Operations (PKOs) are diversifying (See Chapter I, Section 2,1-5). While some activities are encountering difficulties, efforts to settle conflicts all over the world continue, and many activities have resulted in substantial success. Overall, Peace-keeping Operations continue to be one of the most effective U.N. instruments in settling conflicts. Therefore, how to utilize and strengthen them is a crucial matter. "Agenda for Peace" initiated by Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali is one of such attempts.
At the U.N. General Assembly, a comprehensive discussion to generally improve the Peace-keeping Operations was held, and in November, comprehensive resolutions were adopted, which call for improvements in the following areas: (a) preparing human and material resources to ensure an early deployment of a Peace-keeping Operation after it has been set up; (b) strengthening the financial basis (including filling of the peace-keeping reserve fund which was established in 1992 based on a Japanese proposal); (c) improving the efficiency and (d) securing the safety of Peace-keeping Operation personnel. Moreover, a proposal was made to ensure the security of the U.N. personnel, particularly to formulate a legal framework concerning the responsibility on an attack on U.N. personnel as a treaty. A draft is now to be prepared. Japan has a great interest in personnel safety and has positively participated in the debate.
However, it is the contribution and the will on the part of the U.N. member states that are supporting the Peace-keeping Operations. In Japan, the Gulf Crisis triggered a recognition that it is indispensable for Japan to make positive contributions for international peace and security, and the International Peace Cooperation Law was enacted in June 1992. Based on this, a construction unit of the Self-Defense Forces (600 personnel x 2 teams, 1,200 personnel), military observers (8 personnel x 2 teams, 16 personnel), civilian police (75 personnel), and International Polling Station Officers (41 personnel) were dispatched respectively, and their activities were highly praised by the international community as well as the local community. In addition, to provide logistic support to the construction unit in its deployment, station and withdrawal of transport ships, supplier ships of the Maritime Defense Force and transport planes of the Air Defense Force were used. For Japan, this was the first full-scale personnel contribution to the Peace-keeping Operations, and it was most significant that these activities upgraded Japan's contribution to the peace in Cambodia and thereby obtained the understanding and support of the Japanese public on cooperation to the Peace-keeping Operations. Meanwhile, in April 1993, Mr. Atsuhito Nakata, a U.N. volunteer helping to prepare Cambodia for the elections, and in May, Mr. Haruyuki Takada, a PKO trooper, were killed in action. These incidents, which were very regrettable for Japan, also indicated that world peace and security are sometimes only achieved at the sacrifices of precious lives. In May 1993, Japan dispatched a movement control unit consisting of 48 personnel and sent five staff officers for the headquarters at the disposal of the U.N. Operations in Mozambique (ONUMOZ). Participation to ONUMOZ is a contribution by Japan to the stability of a geographically distant region of southern Africa and holds a major significance for Japan, in that it has discharged a global responsibility toward world peace and security.
The International Peace Cooperation Law is scheduled to be revised in 1995, three years after its enactment in light of its state of implementation. It is, therefore, necessary to deepen discussions on this issue, based on the experiences obtained through participation in the Peace-keeping Operations as well as on the actual situation of the international community concerning the Peace-keeping Operations.
(b) Reform of the Security Council
There is a growing recognition of the need to reform the Security Council, which is the core organization with primary responsibility for international peace and security, to better blend it with the current international situation. The number of member states of the United Nations has risen dramatically from 51 at the time of its establishment to the present 184. Meanwhile, the tasks faced by the Security Council and the United Nations as a whole have expanded to require comprehensive responses which include not only political and military measures, but also economic ones. Despite such changes, the Security Council has undergone only one minor reform in 1965, by which the number of non-permanent members has been increased from 6 to 10. Therefore, there has been widespread demand to strengthen the capability of this body to reflect the general will of member countries and to respond effectively to the international agenda.
Under these circumstances, with the adoption of the resolution of the U.N. General Assembly concerning the reform of the Security Council in December 1992, the view that the Security Council needs to be reformed has become a major trend of the international community. In July 1993, Japan submitted its views (Note), and in September, Prime Minister Morihiro Hosokawa, in his address to the General Assembly confirmed that - in order to strengthen the Security Council - "it is important that those countries having both the will and the adequate capacity to contribute to world prosperity and stability be actively engaged in that effort," and expressed Japan's position as being "prepared to do all it can to discharge its responsibilities in the United Nations reformed...."
At the General Assembly of 1993, the reform of the Security Council continued to be one of the most important issues, and in December the following resolutions were adopted:
(i) Decides to establish an Open-ended Working Group to consider all aspects of the question of an increase in the membership of the Security Council and other matters related to the Council;
(ii) Request the Open-ended Working Group to submit a report on the progress of its work to the General Assembly before the end of its 48th session;
(iii) Decides to include in the provisional agenda of its 49th session the item entitled "Question of equitable representation on and increase in the membership of the Security Council and related matters."
By early 1994, the Working Group will begin its work based on this resolution. It is expected that broad and active discussions both at home and abroad will be made on the subject.
(c) Organizational Reforms
Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali has recognized the importance of organizational reforms of the U.N. Secretariat since assuming his post, and since February 1992 he has executed a series of organizational reforms through the integration and abolition of offices. The member countries, including Japan, supported the fundamental direction of the consolidation of organizations and personnel, which had become so complex, to strengthen the function of the United Nations. But some problems have arisen such as de facto reorganization without prior consultations with member states or the instability of treatment of personnel due to multiple changes. Sufficient prior consultations with member states and the clarification of the entire reform process have been requested to the Secretary-General.
1-4. Promoting Arms Control and Disarmament
(a) Today, there are approximately 10,000 strategic nuclear warheads in the United States and the New Independent States (NIS) respectively, and they are to be reduced to 6,000 each (Note) based on first Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I). The second Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II), signed by the United States and Russia in January 1993, accelerates the reduction process of START I, by providing that the number of strategic warheads of each side is to be reduced to about one third of the present level by the year 2003. Another major feature of START II is an agreement on the total abolishment of the multiple-warhead intercontinental ballistic missiles which are regarded as the greatest threat to strategic stability.
(b) Nevertheless, the prospect for START II's entry into force remains uncertain. The prerequisite for START II to enter into force is START I's entry into force. For the latter, it is necessary for Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Belorussia, where strategic nuclear weapons of the former Soviet Union are deployed, to ratify START I, as well as for the three countries, excluding Russia, to accede to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) as non-nuclear-weapon states. In this regard, Ukraine was reluctant, demanding security assurances from the United States and Russia and economic compensation for abandoning nuclear weapons deployed within its territory. However, following a joint statement of the United States, Russia and Ukraine issued in January 1994, concerning the total elimination of nuclear weapons of the former Soviet Union deployed in Ukraine, the Ukrainian parliament adopted in February a resolution to approve the ratification of START I. Japan welcomes this move and will continue to call on Ukraine to accede to the NPT as the next step, thus ensuring its path toward denuclearization.
The emergence of a new nuclear-weapon state, as a result of the dissolution of the former Soviet Union must be avoided by all means, as it would pose a critical problem to international security and the nuclear non-proliferation regime.
(c) With the implementation of the above-mentioned START I and II, and other unilateral measures, it is said that more than 20,000 nuclear weapons in the former Soviet Union, including tactical ones, are to be eliminated. Nevertheless, because of economic difficulties in the former Soviet Union, there is no clear prospect of the elimination of these nuclear weapons being implemented. Such a situation, if not properly dealt with, could lead to a risk of nuclear proliferation or accidents. It is a matter of serious concern to the security of the international community.
In order to promote the elimination of nuclear weapons of the former Soviet Union, the United States has been delivering assistance worth $800 million. In April 1993 Japan decided to extend assistance totaling approximately $100 million. To date, Japan has concluded bilateral agreements with Russia and Belorussia concerning the frame-work for carrying out this assistance and consultations are being held to identify concrete assistance areas. Moreover, in an attempt to prevent the outflow of technology and know-how related to weapons of mass destruction from the former Soviet Union, Japan decided jointly with the United States and the European Union (EU) the establishment of the International Science and Technology Center.
(2) Strengthening of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Regimes
(a) Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT)
In 1995, 25 years after the entry into force of the Treaty, a conference shall be convened to decide the extension period of the Treaty (an extension for an indefinite or a definite period). This is an extremely significant conference that will decide how the future NPT regime should be. In preparing for this conference, the United States and European countries have announced their support for the indefinite extension of the NPT. On the contrary, many non-aligned countries tend to consider the extension issue in conjunction with nuclear disarmament, in particular the progress toward a comprehensive nuclear test ban, while not making their positions clear on the extension of the Treaty.
Recognizing that stabilizing the NPT regime by preventing the emergence of new nuclear-weapon states is indispensable for international security, Japan has declared its support for the indefinite extension on various occasions such as Prime Minister Hosokawa's first policy speech immediately after his inauguration and in his address at the 48th U.N. General Assembly. On the other hand, the indefinite extension of the NPT should not mean perpetuating the possession of nuclear weapons by nuclear-weapon states. Japan will continue to urge all nuclear-weapon states to make further nuclear disarmament efforts toward the ultimate goal of eliminating nuclear weapons.
As of December 1993, 158 states have acceded to the NPT, but many New Independent States, including Ukraine, and others such as India, Pakistan and Israel still remain outside the NPT regime. It is essential to urge these countries to accede to the NPT in order to strengthen the NPT regime. Japan started nuclear non-proliferation consultations in 1993 with India and Pakistan and is urging them to join the NPT. Moreover, it was meaningful that the President of Argentina declared his readiness to accede to the NPT in response to Japan's expectation when he visited Japan in December.
(b) The Nuclear Test Ban Issue
The year 1993 saw a striking development toward a comprehensive nuclear test ban. In July, President Bill Clinton announced U.S. support, for the first time, to achieving a comprehensive nuclear test ban and, at the same time, announced the extension of a moratorium on nuclear tests together with other nuclear-weapon states. Responding to this move, the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva in August gave its Ad Hoc Committee on a Nuclear Test Ban a mandate to negotiate a comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty (CTB T), heightening the international momentum toward a comprehensive nuclear test ban.
Japan, as the chairing country of the Ad Hoe Committee on a Nuclear Test Ban in 1993, has been consulting energetically with countries concerned so that full-scale CTBT negotiations could start smoothly in 1994. In these circumstances, China's nuclear test conducted in October contradicted the international momentum toward a comprehensive nuclear test ban. Japan conveyed its regrets to the Government of China and urged China not to repeat the nuclear tests, and also called on other nuclear-weapon states not to resume nuclear tests on the pretext of the Chinese example.
(c) Handling Uranium Concentrates and Plutonium
With progress in nuclear disarmament, it is expected that the dismantling of nuclear weapons will produce a massive amount of nuclear fissile materials (highly enriched uranium and plutonium). How to control and dispose of them will become a critical issue in ensuring nuclear non-proliferation. In this context, it is noteworthy that President Clinton proposed in September to prohibit the production of nuclear fissile materials for explosive devices or outside the international safeguard measures.
(3) Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
CWC, a comprehensive treaty aimed at eliminating chemical weapons, is an epoch-making treaty stipulating the prohibition on development, production and possession of chemical weapons, the destruction of the already possessed chemical weapons and their production facilities, a strict inspection system on chemical industries, and "challenge inspections," where an international inspection team can conduct inspection to any facilities anywhere in a State Party under suspicion of violating the Treaty, at the request of another State Party. Moreover, the State Parties which possess chemical weapons are obligated to destroy all chemical weapons within 10 years after the Convention enters into force. By the end of 1993, 154 countries have become signatories to the CWC.
Outline of International Non-Proliferation Regimes
This Treaty can enter into force as early as the beginning of 1995, and at present, the preparatory committee of the Organization for Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) (Note) is working toward the entry into force of the Treaty. Japan is actively contributing to the work of the preparatory committee, and is also studying how to consolidate a structure for the domestic implementation of the Convention, aiming at the ratification of the Convention.
(4) The Issue of Transfer of Conventional Arms
The United Nations Register of Conventional Arms was established in January 1992, as a result of an initiative of Japan and other countries, with a view to improving the transparency and openness of armaments. The first registration took place in 1993, with 83 countries reporting the total volume of exports and imports in 1992, of the seven types of offensive weapons such as battle tanks and combat air crafts, etc. Japan has been playing a major role in promoting universality of the Register. For example, Japan hosted the Asia-Pacific workshop concerning the U.N. Arms Register in January 1993, with a view to promoting the understanding of and participation in this register and encouraged other countries to participate in this system. Looking to the future, the expansion of the scope of the system and the increase of participating countries are important tasks. In 1994, a governmental expert group meeting will be held to assess and consider possible improvements of the system, the result of which is to be reported to the U.N. General Assembly.
(5) Strengthening of the Export Controls
(a) Strengthening of the Export Controls
In securing the non-proliferation of weapons, international export control systems for weapon-related materials holds an increasing importance. As for atomic-related items, there are the London Guide-lines (Note 1) in which 28 countries including Japan participate. At the plenary meeting of the Nuclear Suppliers Group in April 1993, the Guidelines were amended so as to provide that, as a precondition for transfer of nuclear-related items, the recipient country is required to accept the full scope safeguard measures of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Concerning the non-proliferation of missiles, there is the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) (Note 2) in which 25 countries including Japan participate. Initially, the MTCR guidelines controlled missiles capable of carrying nuclear weapons and related items. But in January 1993, the guidelines were amended to cover all missiles capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction including biological and chemical weapons, and related items.
(b) Dissolution of COCOM
In response to the end of the Cold War, the Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM) has recently undergone transformation such as relaxation of controls and initiation of informal dialogue with the COCOM prescribed countries. On the other hand, the outbreak and expansion of regional conflicts increased concerns about the proliferation of arms, and there is a growing need to respond to such concerns by establishing a framework of export controls. Against such a background, it was decided at the meeting of the COCOM member countries held in The Hague in November 1993, to abolish COCOM, which had existed for 43 years, by the end of March 1994 at the latest. In addition, with the abolition of COCOM, a need to establish a new framework to deal with export controls on conventional weapons and related dual-use items was agreed upon, and it was decided that the countries concerned should continue to consider this issue.
(6) Russia's Ocean Dumping of Radioactive Wastes
In April 1993, the government committee concerning the ocean dumping of radioactive wastes set up by the Russian President, published its white paper on the ocean dumping of radioactive wastes, and for the first time confirmed that the former Soviet Union and Russia had been dumping radioactive wastes into the North Sea and the Far Eastern seas between 1959 and 1992. Since immediately after the publication of the white paper, Japan has demanded on many occasions that Russia at once suspend such dumping. In the Foreign Ministers' meeting between Japan and Russia held in April, Japan proposed the establishment of a joint working group on this issue as well as the early implementation of a joint marine survey. At the first joint working group meeting held in May, a basic agreement was reached for an early survey. Moreover, in the October summit meeting between Russia and Japan, Prime Minister Hosokawa reiterated the demand for immediate suspension of the ocean dumping and proposed the implementation of a joint survey by the end of 1993 or in early 1994 at the latest. President Boris Yelstin indicated his total support for the joint survey.
However, in October, Russia's Pacific fleet resumed its dumping of radioactive waste into the Japan Sea which had been suspended since 1992. Japan made a strong protest and demanded the immediate suspension of this dumping to the Russian Government, with a direct appeal from Foreign Minister Hata to Russian Foreign Minister Andrey Kozyrev. Consequently, the Government of Russia decided to suspend dumping scheduled thereafter. Both the Japanese and Russians thereafter met many times through the second joint working group meeting as well as through expert group meetings, and continued the work on clarifying the details of the ocean dumping and for the implementation of the first joint marine survey mission in early 1994.
While the primary responsibility rests with Russia for the genuine solution of the problems of storage and processing of radio-active wastes, Japan has been considering possible cooperation in improving Russia's related facilities, taking into account the wish on the Russian part to realize the total ban on ocean dumping. In this connection, at the Consultative Meeting of Contracting Parties to the London Convention 1972 held in November, amendments to ban the ocean dumping of radioactive wastes was adopted, which Japan supported. Moreover, in order to raise international interest concerning the problem, Japan proposed a meeting of countries concerned including the G-7 countries, Korea and Norway, which was held on the occasion of the above Consultative Meeting and enabled useful exchanges of information and opinions among these countries on this problem.
2. Ensuring and Expanding Prosperity
2-1. Ensuring Sustainable Growth of the World Economy and Japan's Role
In the post-Cold War world, while the attention has been increasingly paid toward the revitalization of domestic economies in the United States and other major industrialized countries, the overall picture of 1993 was characterized by uncertainty primarily due to a delay in the recovery of the world economy and a serious rise of unemployment. However, there were some promising developments such as the virtual conclusion of the Uruguay Round trade negotiations. In this environment, various efforts of policy coordination are being made in multilateral as well as trilateral (Japan, the United States and Europe) and bilateral fora (among others, Japan and the United States) in such diverse fields as macroeconomics, structural adjustment, trade and energy with a view to ensuring world prosperity. In order to secure world prosperity, these efforts should be made in a mutually complementary manner. In particular, it is essential for regional and bilateral moves to proceed in a manner consistent with multilateral systems such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and with mutual clarity.
The substantial conclusion of the Uruguay Round negotiations, which was eventually realized after strenuous negotiations of more than seven years at the end of 1993, serves as a future beacon as a result of international coordination efforts toward world prosperity [a total of 124 governments and the European Union (EU) participated in the negotiations]. Had the Uruguay Round negotiations failed, the multilateral free trading system based on the GATT, which was the very foundation of the postwar prosperity, could have been threatened. This could have led to undermine the credibility of international coordination efforts and endanger the very construction of the postwar framework of world prosperity. Therefore, the significance of its success could not be more important to the international community.
More specifically, the primary significance is that it contributes directly to the vitalization and development of the world economy through trade expansion in both goods and services as a result of the reduction or elimination of trade barriers. The GATT Secretariat estimates that the Uruguay Round agreement will bring about a global economic gain of $230 billion annually in 2005.
Furthermore, the World Trade Organization (WTO) will be created as a result of the Uruguay Round. The existing GATT rules, such as the anti-dumping rules, the rules on subsidies and countervailing measures, which tend to have been misused or abused, are to be strengthened. Moreover, new rules will be established in such areas as services and intellectual property rights where there are little or insufficient international rules. This means that, in the field of international trade, a framework will be established to resolve issues or conflicts under transparent and predictable international rules, not by unilateral or gray measures which are not in line with international rules. In light of the fact that trade issues, when treated bilaterally, tend to become politicized, the establishment of such a system will contribute not only economically but also politically to fostering stable international relations in the future.
Furthermore, the conclusion of the Uruguay Round negotiations, by way of providing the basis for promoting economic development through the expansion of trade, will help address another great task in the post-Cold War era; it will support the reform efforts of the countries in transition, such as those in the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe as well as the developing countries and integrate them further into the international community.
Below is a review of the Uruguay Round negotiations leading to its conclusion. After the "Dunkel Paper" was submitted at the end of 1991, the momentum for the conclusion first emerged in November 1992 when an agreement was reached at the Blair House between the United States and the EU. The conclusion, however, was carried over into 1993, partly due to the French opposition to the agreement within the EU. In April 1993, the extension of the fast track procedure relating to the delegation of trade negotiating authority to the administration was approved in the U.S. Congress. At the Tokyo Summit in July 1993 the determination of G-7 leaders to conclude the Round before the end of 1993 was reaffirmed. Moreover, immediately prior to the Tokyo Summit, the quadrilateral ministerial meeting among Japan, the United States, Canada and the EU was held in Tokyo. As Japan's offer to mutually eliminate tariffs on distilled spirits (whiskies and brandies) served as a catalyst, a Tokyo agreement on market access was reached giving a great momentum to the progress in the ensuing negotiations. In September, the multilateral negotiation process in Geneva began in parallel with the negotiations between the United States and the EU. The Uruguay Round finally came to a successful conclusion in December 1993, through an arduous process of negotiations as all the participating countries agreed to make somewhat painful contributions.
The major stumbling block of the Uruguay Round negotiations was that the sometimes deadlocked negotiations between the United States and the EU over market access in agriculture, services and goods led to an impasse of the overall negotiations. Partly due to the fact that the Uruguay Round negotiations coincided with the EU integration process, the EU tended to place priority on its own integration process. The United States has increasingly stressed the interests of its domestic industries in the mid- and final stages of the negotiations in contrast to its forward-looking leadership shown in the very daring proposals put forward in the initial negotiating stage with a view to expanding trade in services and agriculture with little feasibility of these proposals nonetheless. While the United States and the EU arguably affected the entire direction of the Round, the mere fact that they finally compromised on the agreement simply indicates that even they could not have borne the responsibility for the failure of such a large-scale international cooperation efforts as the Uruguay Round.
Another feature of the Uruguay Round was that the economically small-and medium-sized countries with similar interests jointly participated in negotiations in groups as in the Cairns Group (Note) in the area of agriculture, and became a major player with an influence otherwise denied to them individually. Moreover, it is noteworthy that some developing countries like the NIEs and ASEAN countries showed a positive, contributing stance in the negotiations in certain areas, while in the past Rounds they tended to demand strongly preferential treatments as developing countries and enjoy only the results beneficial for them.
On the whole, Japan has continuously made efforts with a view to enlarging the whole package of the negotiations by way of greatly contributing to an agreement at the Tokyo Ministerial Meeting as well as of making a painful decision to accept the "Denis's proposal" on agriculture in December 1993, although it received such criticism as "Japan is hiding behind the United States and the EU" during the process mainly due to the fact that the attention has overly been focused on the rice issue alone. This was based on the recognition that it was particularly significant for Japan to strengthen and expand the non-discriminatory regime of the multilateral free trading system through the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round, as Japan, the only Asian industrialized democratic country with no affiliation of regional economic integration, as well as with a massive trade surplus, tends to be subject to the exaggerated publicity for its "special" features.
In order for the trading system established by the Uruguay Round to function efficiently in the future, it is important that trade policies of major countries be executed in accordance with the international framework structured under the World Trade Organization (WTO). It is particularly important for Japan to improve, in the implementing process of the Uruguay Round agreements, domestic systems and procedures to make them more transparent and objective.
(2) Tackling the Unemployment Problem
The unemployment problem is becoming even more serious with the number of unemployed expected to reach about 35 million in the total OECD countries in 1994. Therefore, resolving this problem has become a top priority of the policy coordination among the major industrialized countries. Against such a background, it is important to push forward the difficult task of structural adjustment on their own and to ensure economic growth through policy coordination efforts. Those actions are important in an effort to stem the tide of protectionist measures with an aim of placing blame on other countries.
In the Economic Declaration of the Tokyo Summit, the main theme of which was "employment and growth," a similar recognition was embodied in the "double strategy." This strategy is comprised of macroeconomic policies to promote non-inflationary sustainable growth, and structural reforms to improve the efficiency of markets, especially the labor markets. The OECD has been engaged in a comprehensive study on employment and unemployment issues since 1992. As a follow-up to the interim report of June 1993, which showed the results of a comprehensive analysis and presented policy directions for the employment issues with an emphasis on structural adjustments such as improvement of labor market flexibility, a final report is to be prepared and reported to such fora as the Naples Summit in 1994. Moreover, in the European Union (EU), policies to reduce unemployment are being studied. This was seen in the report made to the European Council in December 1993 entitled "The White Paper on the Mid-term Strategy for Growth, Competitiveness and Employment." The report put forward mainly microeconomic policies in order to create jobs for 15 million people by 2000. In addition, a G-7 high-level meeting on employment and unemployment is scheduled to be held in the United States in March 1994. As structural adjustments, which are indispensable for a fundamental solution to the unemployment problem are tasks that require steady efforts over time, it is necessary to ensure close coordination between such international meetings and the work of the OECD so that each country can maximize the outcome of such international efforts in promoting structural adjustments in their domestic economy.
In addition to these immediate tasks, the rapid globalization of the world economy brought about new tasks; it has become increasingly necessary to coordinate requirements of different policy areas and to cooperate internationally on issues which have previously been considered to be within the domain of domestic policies. The provisions concerning the environment and labor standards contained in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) deserve attention from such a viewpoint. Also, in multilateral fora, studies are being undertaken with regard to new issues such as those to improve the compatibility of trade policies and environment policies in the OECD and the GATT, and those on the relations between trade policies and competition policies in the OECD. Those multilateral efforts are crucially significant in addressing these tasks.
(4) Moves Toward Regional Integration and Cooperation and the Asia-Pacific Region
Active developments continued in 1993 in regional integration and cooperation such as the integration of the EC market and the establishment of the European Union (F,U), the entry into force of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the first Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Leaders Economic Meeting.
The process of regional integration and cooperation could tend to lack transparency to extra-regional countries. Institutional regional integrations, such as customs unions and free trade zones, in particular, would inevitably create discriminatory treatments against countries outside the region. How to promote regional moves under the multilateral free trading system based on the principle of non-discrimination principle will be a critical issue not only for the countries concerned, but for the entire world in constructing a framework for future prosperity. Recognizing the importance of this issue, Japan has been asserting that regional integration and cooperation must proceed in a manner consistent with the GATT, and without creating discriminatory effects against extra-regional countries, and thereby contribute to world prosperity.
In the Asia-Pacific region, the approach differs from that adopted in the EU and NAFTA, where economic integration has been promoted building upon an institutional framework. In the Asia-Pacific region, flexible and loose cooperation without such an institutional framework is in progress. This is based on the recognition that in the Asia-Pacific region, where economic systems, development stages and cultural and religious backgrounds are of such diversity, the promotion of free economic activities across the region under the open multilateral free trading system is the way to maintain and strengthen the existing regional economic vitality, thereby contributing to the growth and development of the world economy.
Therefore, APEC in its November ministerial meeting announced a declaration and statement calling for the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round negotiations by the end of the year and agreed to establish the Trade and Investment Committee to promote debates and liberalization concerning trade and investment in the region. Moreover, in the APEC Leaders Economic Meeting, at which the leaders of the region gathered for the first time, a discussion was held on the role, contributions and cooperation of this region as the growth center of the world economy. The final statement of this meeting stated that this region, which represents "40 percent of the world's population and 50 percent of its GNP, will play an important role in the global economy, leading the way on economic growth and trade expansion."
Although it has only been five years since the APEC was established, and it is still developing, it is entering a new phase with the establishment of the above-mentioned Trade and Investment Committee as well as the holding of the APEC Leaders Economic Meeting. In other words, expectations are rising for steady success, while maintaining the diversity and openness of the region. In this context, Japan announced the five principles for APEC which express its basic doctrine on the APEC, at the APEC ministerial meeting and at the APEC Leaders Economic Meeting. The five principles are:
(i) respect to the diversity and gradual promotion of cooperation;
(ii) forming common views and pursuing common goals through consultation instead of negotiation;
(iii) ensuring compatibility with the GATT;
(iv) pursuing the ideal of "open regional cooperation;" and
(v) enhancing understanding with non-members, international organizations and others.
Moreover, improving infrastructure and dealing with the environment and the energy problems are major tasks in this region which is undergoing rapid economic development. Toward a solution of these problems, Japan has been making a number of specific proposals, such as formulation of action programs to achieve a trinity of economic growth, stable energy supply and demand and environmental preservation. In addition, while this region will have to seriously consider how it can make contributions in sustaining and developing the prosperity of the entire world, the role of Japan as the major industrialized democratic country in Asia will become even more important. With Japan scheduled to chair the APEC in 1995, it needs to strengthen its contribution to the APEC.
Along with such a multilateral policy coordination, bilateral consultation, including talks on "Japan-U.S. Framework for a New Economic Partnership" (hereinafter referred to as the Framework Talks) are being held actively. As bilateral consultations often tend to lack transparency, there could emerge suspicions that an agreement might be sought in a way that may adversely affect the interest of third countries. In order to prevent such situations and to make the results of bilateral negotiations beneficial to the overall prosperity of the world, it is necessary, when having bilateral consultations, to ensure that the outcome of such consultations will benefit third countries on a Most Favored Nation (MFN) basis, that they comply with international rules such as the GATT, and that they do not take a managed trade approach, such as setting numerical targets. The Framework Talks are conducted in a manner that particularly stresses the above principles as the "basic principles of management," in such diverse sectors as macroeconomics, government procurement, specific structural and sectoral issues including automobiles, and the common agenda for cooperation in a global perspective.
With the end of the Cold War and developments in the Middle East, the international agenda on energy issues is gradually shifting its weight from securing energy supply in an emergency to global and long-term issues, including supply and demand of energy on a global scale and environmental problems such as global warming caused by greenhouse gases discharged by the consumption of fossil fuels. This raised the necessity for the international community to cope with the energy issues together with countries in transition and developing countries such as China whose energy consumption has grown dramatically in recent years. Based on such moves, the Meeting of the Governing Board at the Ministerial Level of the International Energy Agency (IEA), held in June 1993, adopted a common new objective," Shared Goals," building upon initiatives by Japan and other countries, indicating an outline of the medium-and long-term energy policy framework.
Moreover, as regards the energy sector of the countries of the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe whose economies continue to stagnate due to insufficiency of funds, the European Energy Charter was signed in December 1991 as a political declaration to provide a framework to promote trade and investment in the energy sector by 49 countries including non-European industrialized countries. At present negotiations are under way to conclude the Energy Charter Treaty, which is legally binding, to implement the contents of the European Energy Charter, and three protocols which stipulate the substance of specific cooperation in the fields of energy efficiency and environment, oil and natural gas, and nuclear energy. As the energy issues are taking an increasingly global profile, Japan is actively participating in these negotiations.
Reflecting recent moves to strengthen fishery regulations on the high seas, two treaties concerning fishery resource management were adopted at the General Assembly of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in November. In addition, negotiations are under way to draft a new agreement regarding fishing in the high seas of the Baring Sea. At the same time, the environment concerning whaling continues to remain harsh. At the 45th Annual Meeting of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) held in Kyoto in May 1993, there was a deliberation, which continues from 1992, on the French proposal to create a sanctuary in the Antarctic Ocean continued from the decision of the Commission which was carried over to the 46th Meeting. On the other hand, certain results were attained such as the unanimous adoption of a resolution proposed by Japan on research related to the conservation of large Baleen whales.
Japan, as a major player in the world economy accounting for about 15 percent of the total world GNP and 8 percent of the total world trade volume, needs to play a leading role in policy coordination among major countries in ensuring sustainable growth. In 1993, amid the persisting sluggish Japanese economy, the Government of Japan took various fiscal and monetary measures, as well as structural measures designed to encourage vitality of the private sector such as deregulation with a view to ensuring domestic demand-led non-inflationary sustainable growth and rectifying external imbalances.
Specifically, in April 1993, Japan announced its "New Package of Economic Measures" totaling \13.2 trillion (equivalent to about 2.8 percent of nominal GNP) which was an unprecedented scale. In formulating the economic package, maximum efforts had been paid to the need to ensure immediate effects on the economy. For example, the public works were to be implemented in a way to make it possible to place many orders more swiftly by way of front-loading and simplifying procedures, as well as to realize diverse investments in a broad range of fields. Moreover, under the Hosokawa Administration established in August, in order to cope with the severe and protracted economic situation and to formulate harmonious external economic relations, the "Emergency Economic Package" was announced in September containing additional stimulative measures, including deregulation measures and measures to pass on the benefits of yen appreciation to the consumer.
In addition, a study group on economic reforms (the so-called Hiraiwa group), set up as an advisory group to Prime Minister Hosokawa to consider structural reforms, submitted its final report in December and set four targets for economic reforms. These targets were: (a) creativity and vitality ; (b) priority for consumers; (c) transparency at home and to the external countries; and (d) harmony with the world. In order to achieve these goals, it made policy recommendations with the following five pillars :(1) implementation of deregulation including an establishment of a powerful third-party organization to monitor reforms; (2) formation of domestic demand-led economy and an economy full of intellectual and creative vitality; (3) creation of a comprehensive welfare vision for the aged society and formation of a society with active and joint participation by men and women; (4) provision of a free and large global market and implementation of diversified overseas aid; and (5) reform of the fiscal structure and activation of financial and capital markets. In order to make these recommendations meaningful, the study group emphasized the importance of consolidating the implementation system and following up on specific measures directed toward reforms. The group also deemed it indispensable not only to seek domestic understanding and cooperation, but also to seek those of the United States and other countries.
In the monetary policy field, Japan's discount rate was reduced for the sixth time in February and for the seventh time in September, to reach the historically low level of 1. 75 percent.
(1) Coping with the Problems of Developing Countries
As the international community undergoes structural changes, it is crucial for the entire world to ensure stable growth of developing countries which account for about 30 percent of the total world economy. In light of the fact that the economic plight of many developing countries is one of the causes of global-scale problems, including environmental problems, and even many of the regional conflicts took root in the poverty in developing countries, it is necessary for the international community to make concerted efforts to solve the problems which developing countries are facing.
Conditions are beginning to be put in place to allow us to cope fully with the problems. Since the end of the Cold War, the international community has been released from the ideological yoke, and the opportunity for cooperation and dialogue among the countries has been expanded and the mood for constructive dialogue has been enhanced on the side of the developing countries.
Therefore, Japan proposed, at the Tokyo Summit in July, the differentiated approach to provide assistance according to diverse development stages of developing countries and the comprehensive approach to combine provision of aid, promotion of trade and investment and debt strategy, and acquired the support of other G-7 members. Moreover on the occasion of the Summit meeting, Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa and U.S. President Bill Clinton respectively, exchanged views on these various issues with President uharto of Indonesia who was the Chairman of the Non-Aligned ovement. In addition, some developing countries mainly in the Asia-Pacific region which are economically successful have begun to assist less developed countries. It is also important to encourage and support this so-called "south-south cooperation."
(2) The Problems of Primary Commodities
Many developing countries with weak economic bases still depend largely on exports of primary commodities for their foreign currency earnings. Therefore, the recent fall in primary commodity prices substantially reduced the export income of these countries, seriously affecting their economies. The vitalization and stabilization of primary commodity trade has thus become a crucial issue for the development and growth of the economies of developing countries.
Taking this situation into account, Japan and France agreed on the occasion of the Tokyo Summit to take a joint initiative to propose future cooperation in supporting the developing countries' self-help efforts to expand the markets and to upgrade the level of processing of primary commodities in line with the needs appearing in the international market. The two countries are now working toward that end.
(3) The Accumulated External Debt Problem
The accumulated external debt problem of developing countries still remains one of the crucial issues for the international community. Although the debt situation of developing countries as a whole has recently improved, many countries such as Sub-Saharan African countries still have difficulties in recovering their debt servicing capabilities.
To solve this problem, it is indispensable for the debtor countries themselves to make serious efforts to reconstruct their economies by steadily implementing sound macroeconomic policies and structural adjustments. The industrialized countries have supported these self-help efforts of developing countries by implementing various debt relief schemes, primarily through debt reduction. It is concurrently necessary for the industrialized countries to support in a comprehensive manner, by increasing the provision of funds, maintaining sustainable economic growth of their own economies and improving access to their markets.
Japan has been strengthening its support for economic reconstruction and development of developing countries. For example, in order to increase the supply of funds available to developing countries, Japan announced in June 1993, the "Funds for Development" initiative, which combines the "Fifth Medium-Term Target" of ODA with non-ODA financial cooperation, such as loans provided by the Export-Import Bank of Japan and export insurance.
(4) Dialogues with the DNMEs (Note)
There are some developing economies like those in East Asia which have recently achieved high economic growth, and it is important to the growth of the world economy that such economies become responsible partners in the world economy, and that the international community should further support their steady development.
As a part of such support, Japan took the initiative to hold dialogues, between the OECD member countries and the Asian NIEs (The Republic of Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia), and the four Latin American countries which are advanced in their economic development (Argentina, Chile, Brazil and Mexico). This dialogue has promoted a great deal of mutual understanding on trade and investment policies as well as economic policies between the industrialized countries and the developing countries whose economies are getting closer to those of industrialized countries.
2-3. Contributions through Official Development Assistance (ODA)
(a) Recent Moves Surrounding Aid
Japan considers ODA as the most important pillar of its international contributions and has worked hard to increase its quantity. As a result, Japan's ODA in 1992 totaled $11,332 million, making Japan one of the world's largest donor countries.
In the post-Cold War world, there exists the need to assist efforts of the former socialist countries in their transition to democracy and a market economy, as well as to tackle growing global-scale problems such as the environment, population growth and refugees. These needs for financial assistance, combined with traditional aid to developing countries, are increasing and diversifying. In this context, the expectations are increasingly pinned on Japan, making the country's role even more crucial. At the Tokyo Summit of July 1993, Japan played a leading role in taking up the question of developing countries as a major item on the Summit agenda and in reaffirming the importance of development assistance, paying due regard to the requests from developing countries.
(b) Response to the Demand of the New Era
The recent changes in the international community make it necessary to constantly review aid policies in order to respond flexibly to the demands of the new era. Specifically, first of all, as the international community takes up the urgent global-scale problems, such as the environment, population growth and AIDS, Japan is in a position to make active contributions through aid in these areas. In particular, in the areas of population growth and AIDS, Japan announced that it would implement assistance of up to $3 billion over a seven-year period from FY 1994 to FY 2000. Secondly, as will be described later, it is particularly important to actively support the reform efforts toward democracy and a market economy in the post-Cold War world. Thirdly, it is also essential to further promote the "triangular cooperation" or "south-south cooperation," the assistance to developing countries at lower stages of development in cooperation and coordination with those which have graduated or are about to graduate from aid. In fact, Japan has already conducted such triangular cooperation in a manner that the experts of the ASEAN countries and Japan work together to extend technical cooperation in an effort to promote resettlement of Cambodian refugees.
TREND of ODA by Major DAC Member Countries
(Net Disbursement Basis)
(c) Implementation of Appropriate Assistance
Because the major financial resource of aid stems from national taxes, it is necessary to extend effective and efficient assistance and, in addition, to make further efforts with a view to obtaining broader public understanding and support for the necessity of ODA.
From this viewpoint, the Government of Japan has steadily implemented appropriate assistance, based on the ODA Charter of June 1992 which comprehensively compiled the philosophies and principles of ODA. At the same time, Japan has requested developing countries to make use of its assistance more effectively. Moreover, the Government has been promoting broader access to ODA information through various measures such as publishing annual reports and establishing the "International Cooperation Plaza." In addition, it has enhanced support for Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) (Note), with the aim of promoting the participation in aid of the public at large. Furthermore, in implementing aid, Japan has taken into account the respective development stages of developing countries and has relevantly combined grant aid, loan aid and technical assistance. Toward this end, Japan is executing its finely-tuned aid programs, by way of, first of all, grasping the whole development situation of the respective countries, giving detailed considerations to individual cooperation projects [including conduct of preliminary studies, assessment of the effect on the environment, and consideration paid to women in development (WID)], and implementing evaluation and follow-ups.
(d) Aid Programs Contributing to National Interests
What must not be overlooked in implementing aid is that such aid to developing countries contributes not only to improving the recipient countries' economic development and welfare, but also to Japan's national interests from a medium- and long-term perspective.
In particular, under its Peace Constitution, ODA plays a more important role of international contributions for Japan than in any other country. Coupled with diplomatic efforts in other fields, Japan's contribution to economic development of developing countries helps foster friendly bilateral relations and the international community's trust in Japan's basic diplomatic efforts. Thus this may lead to strengthen Japan's role in the international arena. It is from this perspective that Japan has been taking initiatives in recent years in hosting various international meetings dealing with aid, such as the first meeting of the International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia (ICORC), the Tokyo International Conference on African Development and the Mongolia Assistance Group Meeting.
(e) Discussions at the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) (Note)
At the DAC high level meeting in December 1993, where the aid policy makers of the highest rank of all the member countries gather once a year, the DAC list of ODA recipient countries and territories was revised. This revision became necessary in order to reflect some of the changes in the overall environment surrounding aid, such as the diminished significance of strategic assistance, the need to cope with various global-scale problems, the financial difficulty of donor countries, and the spectacular development of some of the developing countries.
The DAC has been compiling ODA statistics of member countries based on the DAC developing countries list, and many donor countries have come to use this list to see whether the country in question is eligible as an aid recipient. Japan emphasized the importance of assistance to the countries whose economies have just begun to expand but still suffer from distortions in the process of development, especially in the fields of the environment and technology transfer. Taking into consideration Japan's assertion that the DAC list should not be too narrowly defined, the following agreements were reached:
(i) The new DAC list will be classified into two parts which consist of the category of "developing countries and territories" (Part I), and the newly added category of "countries and territories in transition" (Part II).
(ii) Aid flows destined to the countries in Part I will be treated as ODA in DAC statistics. The three Caucasus countries (Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan) will be classified in Part I from January 1994.
(iii) The countries in Central and Eastern Europe as well as most countries in the former Soviet Union will be classified in Part II from 1994. And from 1996, some countries classified in Part I which have reached the high income country (HIC) group according to the World Bank threshold (in the case of 1994 threshold, those countries whose GNP per capita in 1992 exceed $8,355 are categorized as HIC) will be reclassified in Part II. However, a set of composite criteria that takes into consideration various indexes other than GNP per capita (e.g. purchasing power parity, human development index of the UNDP, etc.) will be used by the end of 1995, and applied on and after 1996.
(2) Application of the Principles of the ODA Charter
The ODA Charter stipulates four principles (Note) including implementing ODA while paying full attention to trends in military expenditures, efforts toward democracy and introduction of a market-oriented economy in developing countries. Together with these four principles, Japan carries out ODA by comprehensively taking into account the recipients' requests, socio-economic conditions and bilateral relations. Explanations of these principles are repeatedly made at bilateral meetings of senior officials and other consultations concerning economic cooperation so as to deepen policy dialogues with developing countries.
Japan actively extends assistance to the countries which show favorable performance in light of the above elements. However, in cases there are unfavorable moves despite such policy dialogues, it responds by calling special attention of these countries or reviewing its aid policy toward them.
For example, the mounting criticism at home and abroad on the Kenyan government's negative practices on human rights, protracted economic reforms and corruptions, prompted Japan to postpone its assistance, particularly for international balance of payments. But based on the improvements seen thereafter in democratization and economic reforms, Japan decided to provide ODA loans in co-financing with the World Bank to support Kenya's export promotion program in October 1993. Moreover, as regards Malawi, the concern about human rights led to suspension of Japan's new aid for international balance of payments from May 1992. But with such improvements as shown in the peacefully conducted national election, Japan decided to resume its assistance in September 1993 in coordination with the international community. With favorable moves seen in Vietnam, Cambodia, Mongolia, Central Asian countries, El Salvador and so forth, Japan is positively extending assistance to promote economic liberalization and democratization through, among others, taking initiatives to host the Mongolia Assistance Group Meeting, the Ministerial Conference on Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia, and the International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia. On the other hand, in those countries where human rights oppressions are conspicuous and the democratization process has stagnated, such as Sudan and Haiti, aid policies have been reviewed and assistance has been limited to emergencies and humanitarian purposes.
In regard to "the pursuit of environmental conservation and development in tandem," Japan has been steadily implementing its pledge made at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) to dramatically improve and expand ODA for the environment by allocating between \900 billion and \1 trillion during the five years from FY 1992, and in FY 1992 a total of about \280.3 billion was implemented. In addition, since 1989, Japan has been dispatching environmental policy dialogue missions to developing countries in Latin America, Southeast Asia and East Africa to explore appropriate environmental projects to be financed under ODA. At the same time, human resource development is being conducted to improve the capacity of developing countries themselves to deal with environmental problems (environmental management system and technology). In implementing aid projects for development purposes, Japan has examined the project's effects on the surrounding environment because it is important to see that environmental considerations are fully taken into account
In the future, based on Japan's own experiences, it intends to continue to implement the environmental ODA as a priority task by making full use of its technology and knowledge.
(3) Formulation of the Fifth Medium-Term Target (quantitative increase and qualitative improvement)
Japan mostly achieved its Fourth Medium-Term Target which laid down terms for quantitative increase and qualitative improvement of ODA. Upon its conclusion and despite the tight fiscal situation, the Fifth Medium-Term Target for the five years between 1993 and 1997 was drawn up in June 1993, the aim of which is for Japan to make international contributions commensurate with its international standing.
In the Fifth Medium-Term Target, the total ODA amount was announced to be between $70 and $75 billion for the five-year period so as to achieve further increases in quantity. This is a 40 to 50 percent increase over the Fourth Medium-Term Target. Moreover, as for the GNP ratio of ODA, which is internationally recognized as an indicator for international comparison of aid, Japan's 1992 performance was 0.30 percent, which was lower than the average 0.33 percent of the 21 DAC member countries. For this reason, in continuation of the Fourth Medium-Term Target, its steady improvement is targeted.
What must be stressed concerning qualitative improvement is the grant share and grant element (an indicator which shows the degree of softness, compared with commercial-base loans). In the case of Japan, although improvements have been made so far, the quality remains at a low level compared with other aid donor countries. For this reason, enhancement and strengthening of the grant portion of ODA (grant assistance and technical cooperation) have been incorporated. In addition, as mentioned above, a relevant combination of a variety of aid forms according to the diversified situations of developing countries is also stipulated.
As the sector of aid, global-scale problems such as the environment and population growth, the basic human needs, human resource development and socio-economic infrastructure improvement have been listed, building upon the priority areas identified in the ODA Charter. As regards aid for environmental projects, in particular, flexibility is shown in order to support the self-help efforts of developing countries in pursuit of environmental conservation and development in tandem. For example, as far as environmental projects are concerned, those developing countries that are usually ineligible both for ODA loan and grant aid have been made eligible for both forms of aid.
Moreover, in order to implement finely-grained assistance that meets the needs of the people in recipient countries, it is important to conduct careful preliminary studies and close dialogues and exchanges of views with the recipient governments. Toward that end, it is necessary to improve the implementation structure of Japan, primarily the increase of personnel involved with aid. Specifically, (1) improving and increasing aid personnel; (2) strengthening project finding and formulation functions; (3) further improving and expanding various studies including preliminary ones; and (4) enhancing regional studies and development policy studies, in addition to improving assessment activity, are also listed as targets. Moreover, to embark on an effective and efficient implementation of aid, it is necessary to step up efforts to foster those concerned with development assistance, including experts and private consultants, as well as to strengthen collaborations with local municipalities, private organizations and NGOs.
(4) Forms of Japan's Official Development Assistance (ODA)
(a) Technical Cooperation
Because "development aid with a human face" is now being sought, technical cooperation plays an increasingly important role, as it contributes to the nation building of developing countries by human resource development through technology transfers. Official technical cooperation is implemented mainly through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in various forms, such as the acceptance of trainees, the dispatch of experts, the provision of equipment, project-type technical cooperation, development studies (Note 1),development cooperation (Note 2), the dispatch of Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers, the Youth Invitation Program, and the dispatch of Japan Disaster Relief Teams in international emergency cases. Japan's total technical cooperation in 1992 reached $2.13 billion, but its share in total ODA remains low compared with that of other countries.
In order to swiftly and flexibly meet the diversified needs of developing countries, the increases in quantity and the qualitative improvement of technical cooperation is essential, and for that purpose, it is important to strengthen the aid implementing structure and to enhance the training of personnel involved with aid.
(b) Grant Aid
Grant aid provides funds to developing countries without imposing repayment obligations. It, therefore, can meet the development needs of developing countries centering on basic human needs and human resource development. Grant aid includes general grant (Note 3), grant aid for fisheries, disaster relief, grant aid for cultural activities, food aid and aid for increased food production.
The budget for grant aid has been expanding, reflecting the mounting expectations from developing countries as well as other major donor countries. The total budget (initial budget) for grant aid in FY 1993 was \243.1 billion, approximately 1.6 times higher than the amount provided a decade ago.
Because the low ratio of grant within Japan's ODA has been pointed out, and that achieving further qualitative improvement while ensuring quantitative increase is a major task to be addressed, the increase of grant aid is all the more important.
In October 1992, the Tokyo International Conference on African Development was held in Tokyo, in which Japan announced grant aid totaling about $250 to $300 million for three years beginning in FY 1993 to ensure healthy potable water to Africa, primarily focusing in the Sub-Saharan countries suffering from water shortage. This plan aims not only to meet basic human needs, but also to improve the life environment and to reduce the burden of collecting water which is, at present, largely borne by women in those countries. The implementation of this plan will double the level of cooperation in water supply to this region compared with the three previous years.
(c) Direct Government Loans (ODA Loans)
Direct government loans (ODA loans) provide funds to developing countries at low interest rates and over long repayment periods. The average interest rate in FY 1992 was 2.9 percent with a repayment term of 25-30 years. Since ODA loans impose repayment obligations on the recipient countries, they can encourage self-help efforts of the recipient countries and meet demands for the large amount of funds required for the socio-economic infrastructure improvement of developing countries.
The ODA loans provided in FY 1992 totaled \909.9 billion on the basis of the Exchange of Notes, down 4 percent from the previous year. In addition, a large amount of debt rescheduling (\284.6 billion) was implemented in the same fiscal year.
With a view to making an efficient use of aid funds, Japan has promoted a general untying of loans. As a result, the general untied ratio in FY 1992 on the basis of the Exchange of Notes reached 95.8 percent. Moreover, the share of procurement by Japanese corporations was no more than 35 percent in the same fiscal year. This indicates that the Government of Japan guarantees openness of Japanese ODA loans to outside contractors both institutionally and substantially.
In 1993, the first ODA loans were provided to the former Soviet republic Kyrgyz and Central and Eastern European countries (Albania and Hungary), as well as the first project loans to Mongolia and Vietnam, showing that Japan is fully committed to support the efforts of these countries to introduce a market-oriented economy and open-door policies.
(d) Aid Through International Organizations
In addition to the aforementioned bilateral aid, Japan provides assistance through international organizations, which are classified into the following four categories: (1) U.N. aid agencies such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); (2) international development financial institutions such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank; (3) institutions with expertise on specific areas such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) under the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR); and (4) regional cooperation organizations such as the Asian Productivity Organization (APO). Assistance through these international organizations has the advantage of having access to their highly specialized knowledge and expertise. It also contributes to the implementation of fined-tuned assistance, by enabling extension of aid to regions and areas which cannot be covered by bilateral assistance and promoting the "south-south cooperation," which utilizes the experience and know how of developing countries at a comparatively advanced stage.
Japan's ODA through these international organizations is calculated as the total subscription and contributions to the various organizations. In 1992, that amount totaled $2,848 million (an increase of 31.6 percent from the previous year) and the share of the aid through international organizations in Japan's total ODA was 25.1percent (19.6 percent in 1991).
(e) Support to Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
Development cooperation made by NGOs to developing countries is important in that it complements ODA and promotes the participation of the public at large in economic cooperation. The Government of Japan has actively supported the activities of NGOs respecting their initiatives.
As part of such support, the Government introduced the Subsidy System for NGO Projects, and a new cooperation system which enables provision of Small-Scale Grant Assistance (Grant Assistance for Grassroots Projects) to projects implemented by locally active NGOs, etc. Both systems are steadily developing with support from NGOs, and the former provided a total of \277.71 million to 53 projects and 30 organizations in FY 1992.
3. Groping for a More Humane World
Genuine peace does not simply mean that there is no conflict, but it must ensure freedom, human rights and democracy in which each person can enjoy a humane life. Moreover, the global-scale problems such as the environment, refugees and drugs, not only transcend borders to affect other countries, but have inherent dangers of threatening the very basis of the existence of humankind. In today's world where international interdependence is ever deepening, it is impossible for individual countries acting separately to find the solution to these problems. Instead, it is necessary that the international community enhance policy coordination to solve these problems.
3-1. Promoting Introduction of Freedom, Democracy and a Market Economy
In the post-Cold War world, there are countries in transition such as Russia and Central and Eastern European countries, which are making efforts to introduce democracy and a market-oriented economy to their political, economic and social systems. Success of those efforts is not only necessary for their own stability and development but also indispensable for building a future framework for peace and prosperity of the entire world. Their success depends primarily on each country's own efforts, but the reform process is not an easy one, and there are risks of political and economic confusion or rollback by conservatives and nationalist groups in these countries. In particular, if such risks turned into realities in a big country like Russia, it would be a great impediment to world peace and prosperity. Therefore, in the present unstable international situation, it is important for the international community to concert support and assistance to these reform efforts in order to consolidate world peace and prosperity based on universal values.
Efforts to introduce democracy and a market economy are under way also in Asia, Latin America and Africa, but the results are mixed.
In Asia, the first direct presidential election was held in Mongolia in June as a part of the reform toward democracy and a market economy which had begun in March of 1990. Moreover in Cambodia, as mentioned in Chapter I, major progress in democratization and full scale efforts to introduce a market economy have been made. In Vietnam also, favorable moves such as further progress in the Doi Moi reform (economic liberalization and open-door policy) have been seen.
In Latin America, Peru held peacefully a national referendum on the adoption of a new constitution in October, thereby putting an end to a temporary suspension of the constitution invoked since April 1992, and is steadily making progress in democratization. On the other hand, Haiti increasingly suffers from confusion, as the repatriation of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide has been hindered by an anti-president armed group in spite of an agreement in July concerning a return to a democratic system including his repatriation.
In Africa, as a result of inter-party negotiations undertaken in South Africa since 1989 toward the abolition of Apartheid, an agreement was reached in July to hold a constitution promulgation assembly in April 1994. In December, the first meeting of the Transitional Executive Council (TEC) was held, enabling all races in South Africa to participate in the national government for the first time in its history. In response to these moves, economic sanctions on South Africa were removed at the U.N, General Assembly in October. In addition, in Madagascar, a democratic cabinet was formed at the end of August, establishing the third republic both in name and reality. Progress and democratization was made in Ghana also, where transition to a civilian government was completed in January. On the other hand, moves against democratization took place in Nigeria, which had been scheduled to change over to civilian rule in August.
Under the situation, efforts in international cooperation led by Japan, the United States and Europe are in progress to assist moves toward introduction of democracy and a market economy. For example, the G-7 Joint Ministerial Meeting on Assistance to the Russian Federation was held in April, and a specific assistance package was agreed upon. On the other hand, there is a need for the international community to assist countries in Asia, Latin America and Africa, besides countries of the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe, in their efforts toward introduction of democracy and a market economy.
Japan, through its Official Development Assistance (ODA) in particular, has been assisting those efforts of developing countries and countries in transition. This policy is indicated clearly in its ODA Charter. Moreover, in order to support such efforts, Japan is playing a leading role in establishing a framework for a multilateral coordination, and in extending effective cooperation within the framework. For example, on Mongolia's efforts to introduce democracy and a market economy, Japan hosted the third Mongolia Assistance Meeting in September in cooperation with the World Bank in order to outline international assistance. Furthermore, as for Cambodia, Japan hosted and chaired the first meeting of the International Committee for the Reconstruction of Cambodia (ICORC) in September. As for the three countries in Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos), Japan hosted and chaired in December the preparatory meeting of the Forum for Comprehensive Development of Indochina to discuss the direction of socio-economic development and introduction of a market economy. For Africa, Japan hosted in October, the Tokyo International Conference on African Development in which it announced the intention to provide active support for self-help efforts toward democracy and sustainable economic development, while, at the same time, encouraging such self-help efforts. Concerning Latin America, Japan participated in the election verification team of the Organization of American States (OAS) to the national referendum on the newly drafted constitution in Peru in October. In addition, Japan co-chaired the economic development working group of the Partnership for Democracy and Development in Central America (PDD) launched in 1990 at the suggestion of the United States, and hosted in March the Special Session of PDD in Tokyo.
The global environment issues are one of the most important issues to be tackled by the international community in building a new framework for peace and prosperity in the post-Cold War world. Their importance in foreign policy can be explained by their three outstanding characteristics; global-scale, multifaceted effects and the high degree of international interest.
First, the global environment issues have global scale effects transcending national borders and there is a need for the international community to take concerted action. Japan needs to take active initiatives in the efforts of the international community at the United Nations and the OECD on the problems of climatic changes, depletion of the ozone layer, deprivation of bio-diversity, destruction of forests, desertification and various endangered species.
Second, the global environment issues are multifaceted issues that are closely related to important diplomatic issues such as the North-South problems, international trade and security issues.
Third, being a country which has achieved high economic growth and overcome pollution problems, Japan is expected to show clear leadership concerning the global environment issues in building a framework for world peace and prosperity in the post-Cold War world.
(2) Trend in the International Community
At the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) of 1992, it was confirmed as the consensus of the international community that the pursuit of sustainable development and environmental preservation in tandem is important. As the result of UNCED the "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development," and "Agenda 21" were adopted, and the U.N. Framework Convention on Climatic Changes and the Convention on Biological Diversity were signed.
Major moves of the international community after the UNCED are as follows:
First, in order to ensure a steady implementation of the items agreed at UNCED, the Committee on Sustainable Development (CSD) was established under the U.N. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) at the 47th Session of the U.N. General Assembly. CSD is composed of 53 elected countries. The first substantive meeting of the CSD was held in June 1993 and financial problems and the issue of promotion of technology transfers were identified as important issues in following up on the UNCED. The second substantive meeting is scheduled to be held in May 1994.
Second, at the Munich and Tokyo Summit meetings, the industrialized countries pledged to draft and make public by the end of 1993 an action program to implement the "Agenda 21" which is the comprehensive summation of UNCED agreements. Japan was the first of the G-7 that completed its action program by incorporating the views from a wide spectrum of sectors in Japan. What is noteworthy is that the United States completed its action program on climatic changes in 1993 under the Clinton Administration.
Third, the Convention on Biological Diversity which was signed at UNCED took effect in December 1993 as the required number of countries had ratified the Convention. The Framework Convention on Climatic Changes is also to take effect in March 1994.
In order to grapple with the global environment issues from the financial perspective, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) was established. This fund aims to support projects which are recognized as being useful in bringing about global benefits and solving global environmental problems rather than domestic environmental problems of developing countries. Specifically, the fund stipulates financial assistance for the four sectors of global warming, biological diversity, international waters, and ozone layers.
In addition, discussions concerning the relationship between trade and environment at the OECD and the GATT as well as new regional moves in the EU, NAFTA and APEC merit attention.
Based on such a basic recognition and the trend of the international community, Japan is actively participating in multilateral consultations including the United Nations and environmental policy consultations with major countries including the United States and the countries in the EU in the following five sectors.
(a) Strengthening the International Legal Framework
Japan attaches importance to strengthening the international legal framework in preserving the global environment and is making efforts to draft new rules as well as to ensure the observation of the existing rules.
The first category of such efforts is the coordination of positions between developing and industrialized countries in drafting conventions. In the drafting process of the conventions, developing countries tend to blame environmental problems on the economic activities of industrialized countries and to argue that the industrialized countries should fulfill their responsibilities by providing funds and transferring technology. Japan continued to negotiate with perseverance, taking into consideration the position of both the developing and industrialized countries in the preparatory process of UNCED and contributed greatly to the drafting of the U. N. Framework Convention on Climatic Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Moreover, in the negotiations to elaborate the International Convention to combat Desertification which is to be completed in June 1994, Japan has been playing a central role in the negotiations.
Second is the assistance to cover the costs of developing countries in participating in negotiations for the conventions. With a dramatic increase in the number of environment-related conventions, the number of inter-governmental conferences for their negotiations have also surged. Japan, taking a view that participation of a large-number of countries including developing countries is indispensable to make the conventions effective, has actively provided assistance for the participation of developing countries.
Third is the efforts to ensure the implementation of the conventions. After the UNCED, Japan immediately proceeded to the ratification process enabling it to become the fourth industrialized country to submit the instrument of acceptance of the U.N. Framework Convention for Climatic Change, and the second for the Convention on Biological Diversity. In addition, the conventions which have already taken effect are the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, and Japan is the second largest donor following the United States to the Multilateral Fund which provides the required funds for the implementation of the Protocol.
(b) Strengthening and Enhancing Environment-related ODA
At the UNCED, Japan pledged to strengthen and enhance Japan's ODA for the environment by allocating between \900 billion and \1 trillion during the five years starting from FY 1992, and received high praise from participating countries. Japan's ODA for the environment in FY 1992 was about \280 billion, already achieving more than one quarter of the five-year target. There is a further necessity to draft a fine-tuned development assistance policy through future dialogues with developing countries. Particularly, it is essential to promote the self-help efforts of developing countries, and to assist improvement of the social infrastructure and human resources development which are necessary for the long-term sustainable development. Moreover, it is also important to cooperate in environmental problems of the Asian region which has close relations with Japan. The progress in the plan to establish an environmental center in Indonesia and China with the help of Japan's environmental ODA follows this policy.
(c) Environment-related Technology Development and its Transfer to Developing Countries
The role of technology in solving environmental problems is significant, and the development of environmental technology to reconcile environmental conservation and economic growth as well as its transfer to developing countries are major issues. Japan is taking an initiative in this field as well, and the main objective of the establishment of the "UNEP International Environmental Technology Center" in Osaka and Shiga is to transfer technology to developing countries. Activities, such as providing environmental technology and information to developing countries, dispatching of experts, accepting trainees in environmental areas from developing countries, are under way.
(d) Reforming the "Global Environmental Facility (GEF)"
Japan considers it appropriate to concentrate the funds required for the solution of environmental problems to the GEF, and to formulate an effective strategy on provision of financial support which takes into account the relative importance of each environmental problem on the planet. Taking such a view, Japan supports the GEF as an ace card for the financial problems in following-up on the UNCED. Toward this end, Japan has already paid into the GEF trust fund a total of $34 million and has announced its intention to provide approximately $180 million in the form of ODA loans through co-financing. Starting in mid-1994 the GEF II is scheduled to start to cover the next three years, and meetings are being frequently held among the participating countries to discuss the reform and capital increase of the GEF, with a view to reaching, in the end, consensus on how GEF II ought to function.
(e) Changing Lifestyles
Of the five priority issues of the follow-up on UNCED, the crucial issue which requires the most long-term efforts is that of establishing among the Japanese lifestyles and ways of thinking that place emphasis on the environmental considerations. The "Basic Environment Law" which entered into force in November 1993 is a comprehensive law that goes beyond the existing framework for coping with the conventional domestic pollution problems and fully tackles global-scale environ-mental problems. The "Basic Environment Law," indeed draws attention to the importance of international coordination and, at the same time encourages people to change their lifestyles. In order for Japan, through its foreign policy on environmental issues, to participate actively in the formation of new rules by the international community, it is important to further promote efforts in this field.
(a) Current Situation
Major producing centers of drugs are spreading widely over the world. As for heroin, there are the" Golden Triangle" extending over the three countries of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos and the "Golden Crescent" covering the three countries of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran, both of which have the United States and Europe as their main smuggling destinations. Cocaine, on the other hand, is produced in large quantities in such Andean countries like Peru, Bolivia and Colombia, and other countries in Latin America and smuggled not only into Europe and the United States, but recently a sharply rising quantity has been smuggled into Japan.
In these producing areas, the drug production has not yet been sufficiently reduced despite a variety of measures and efforts of the countries concerned. Moreover, drug abuse is expanding in these producer or transit countries, and in recent years there has been a sharp increase in drug abuse in the CIS countries as well as the Central and Eastern European countries after the collapse of the socialist systems. This is making the problem even more serious and complicated.
(b) International Cooperation on Drug Problems
Each country has been coping with the international drug problem mainly through the United Nations. At the Extraordinary Session of the United Nations on Drugs of February 1990, the period between1991 and 2000 was proclaimed the "United Nations Decade against Drug Abuse." In addition, the "Global Programme of Action (GPA)" was adopted with a view to encouraging international cooperation to eradicate drugs. This program is being promoted mainly by the United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP). At the Special Session of the United Nations on Drugs in October 1993, the importance of implementing the GPA was confirmed to strengthen international cooperation in contributing to solving the drug problem. A resolution on how to proceed with future measures against drugs was adopted.
Outside the United Nations, the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), which examines preventive measures against money laundering resulting from illicit drug trafficking, the Chemical Action Task Force (CATF) which seeks measures to prevent chemicals from being diverted for illegal drug manufacturing, and the Dublin Group which regularly deliberates drug-related assistance policies of industrialized countries, are all making active efforts in the international cooperation against drugs.
The mini-Dublin Group meetings are being held at member-states' embassies in the drug producing countries. Japan took initiatives in the mini-Dublin Group meetings in the Southeast Asian region, and took active part in deliberations held in other regions such as in Latin America.
(c) Japan's Contribution to the Solution of Drug Problem
Amid a situation where drugs have become a serious global-scale social problem, Japan has been positively engaged in efforts for solution based on cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region.
In March 1992, the Southeast Asia Regional Center of UNDCP was established in Bangkok based on the concept proposed by Japan. This center has actively pursued a sub-regional strategy (Note) such as establishing joint drug control projects in new border areas which now include Laos in addition to the traditional borders of Thailand, Myanmar and China. In response to such encouragements, producing countries such as Thailand have begun to seriously tackle the drug problem. This now offers a good example of regional engagement against drugs.
Japan is vigorously implementing assistance to the UNDCP including its active support for the center and contributed a total of $4.5 million in FY 1993.
As for assistance to multilateral organizations, Japan, in addition to financial assistance to the UNDCP, is making financial contributions to the Drug Advisory Programmes of the Colombo Plan, one of whose purposes is to train personnel to be engaged in counter-narcotic activities in Asia, as well as to the Organization of American States (OAS), which plays a pivotal role in counter-narcotic measures in the Latin American region, and to the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD).
On the bilateral level, Japan invites law enforcement officers in charge of drug control from various countries in Asia, Latin America, the Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the CIS, to promote support for human resources development through seminars on control of narcotic offenses. Japan also provides cooperation to Thailand, Laos etc. by providing equipment to detect drugs and assisting the increase of food production aiming at promotion of alternative development to replace drugs. Moreover, in February and March 1993, Japan dispatched its own experts as part of a program to transfer technology on how to use drug detecting equipment.
(a) Current Situation
There occurred throughout the world in 1993, various forms of terrorism including such bombings as that of the World Trade Center in New York in February, kidnapping, assassination and aircraft hijacking. In the Middle East, some radical opponents to the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-government between Israel and the PLO reached in September continued mainly in the occupied territories to resort to terrorist actions on the Israelis and Palestinians who were promoting the peace negotiations. Moreover, the so-called Islamic fundamentalism has been gaining power, and in Algeria, for example the radical Islamic fundamentalists started to kidnap and/or brutally murder foreigners. In Europe and Southwest Asia, separatist groups carried out terrorist actions such as the bombing in the City in London in April, and the kidnapping of foreign tourists in the southeastern part of Turkey from July to October. While terrorist actions by the left-wing radical groups continue to take place in Latin America and Southeast Asia, thanks to the strengthening of the governments' control and their efforts toward peace, these activities, albeit some marginal cases, are decreasing in their scale and number.
(b) International Cooperation
International cooperation is being conducted either on bilateral or multilateral basis for the effective prevention of terrorism, through improving the legal framework, examining and implementing effective measures against terrorism and exchanging information, in which Japan has been an active participant. It was stated in the political declaration of the Tokyo Summit in July that "terrorism, particularly when sponsored by states, poses a grave danger," and that the G-7 countries strongly oppose such terrorism. In November, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 883 (which Japan voted for) to strengthen the already imposed economic sanctions against Libya, which continued to refuse the international investigation to clarify the truth on the bombing of Pan American aircraft in 1988 and UTA French aircraft in 1989.
(c) Terrorism and Japan's Position
Japan resolutely opposes any form of terrorism, irrespective of its motives and is making full efforts to prevent terrorism. In recent years, there have been an increasing number of terrorist incidents overseas in which Japanese citizens have directly or indirectly become victims. In February, three Japanese were taken hostage in an aircraft hijacking, and then in April, offices of Japanese companies were damaged in the bombing in the City in London.
In the event that Japanese nationals are taken hostage by terrorists who make unlawful demands to the Government of Japan, the Government, of course, makes its utmost efforts for the release of the hostages in cooperation with the foreign government which has the primary responsibility. At the same time, in order to prevent analogous incidents in the future, there is a need to take a firm stand based on the principle of making no concessions to terrorists, a resolve which has been confirmed repeatedly at the G-7 Summit Meetings. In securing this basic policy of the Government, further public understanding and cooperation are indispensable.
A possibility cannot be ruled out for the Japanese Red Army to resort to some terrorist action in the future. The Government of Japan, therefore continues to obtain information in cooperation with countries concerned, on any moves of the Japanese Red Army such as its transfer of their headquarters from Bekaa Valley, Lebanon, to elsewhere.
3-4. Human Rights and Humanitarian Problems
(a) The International Situation surrounding Human Rights Issues
After the end of the Cold War, respect for human rights in the world is increasingly attracting international attention. In every corner of the world, the attention devoted to promotion and protection of human rights is now stronger than ever, and the recognition of the universal value of human rights is spreading widely. An increasing number of countries now accept the idea that, while the significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne in mind, it is the duty of States, regardless of their development stages, to protect and promote human rights. It must be noted that developing countries are making efforts to establish "the right to development" as an important human right, emphasizing a different point from the traditional approach of human rights, which places top priority on the promotion and protection of the civil and political rights.
(b) Japan's Foreign Policy on Human Rights
Japan has been making consistent and unflagging efforts since the end of World War II to build a society based on the respect of fundamental human rights and on freedom and democracy. Convinced that human rights are universal value common to all humankind and are the foundation of world peace and prosperity, and that human rights must be respected in any country, Japan has called on all countries to respect human rights. Specifically, Japan has taken advantages of opportunities to convey its concern to countries in which human rights are violated, and to call for improvement of human rights situations. In implementing Official Development Assistance (ODA), the Government of Japan is, in conformance with the ODA Charter, paying full attention to the recipient country's situation regarding the securing of fundamental human rights and freedoms, and has taken such measures as reviewing its aid policy to those in which the human rights situation is not improving.
(c) Human Rights Activities of the United Nations
The U.N. Charter states that one of the main objectives of the United Nations is "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all" and the United Nations, with its Commission on Human Rights as the major vehicle, has been engaged in various human rights activities. At the initial stage, the United Nations concentrated its efforts on establishing international human rights standards, and has come to emphasize actual promotion and protection of human rights according to those standards thereafter. For instance, the United Nations has adopted resolutions which express concern of the entire international community, based on investigations and their reports on particular countries grossly violating human rights. In recent years, the importance of technical assistance in the field of human rights has been recognized. Therefore, the U.N. Human Rights Center, which is the secretariat for the human rights issues in the U.N. system, is playing leading roles in such activities as dispatching advisory experts and training civil servants through seminars, upon requests from member countries. Japan has continuously been a member of the U.N. Commission on Human Rights since 1982 and has been contributing to the strengthening of these human rights activities.
(d) World Conference on Human Rights
In June 1993, the World Conference on Human Rights was held in Vienna with participation of heads of states and foreign ministers. The objectives of this Conference were to reevaluate the past performance of the promotion and protection of human rights, to study the problems which the international community currently faces and to make specific recommendations to improve the present situation. In addition to the representatives from about 170 countries, more than 800 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) participated in this Conference as observers. Japan actively participated in the drafting of the Conference's final document, the 'Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action," for the success of the World Conference on Human Rights. It was a great achievement that the document, which confirmed the universality of human rights, was adopted without voting, overcoming the conflict of opinions between countries of North America and Europe and some of the developing countries. The "Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action" proclaims that "it is the duty of states, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms" and "the promotion and protection of all human rights is a legitimate concern of the international community." The document further states that "the lack of development may not be invoked to justify the abridgement of internationally recognized human rights."
(e) The Establishment of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
At the World Conference on Human Rights, the creation of the post of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, which the United States strongly promoted as extremely important in ensuring the promotion and protection of human rights in the world, was one of the major priorities since the 1960's. There had been movements seeking the creation of this post as a means to strengthen the human rights activities of the United Nations. Against this background, the Vienna Conference decided in June to recommend to the General Assembly in the autumn of 1993 that it begin, as a matter of priority, consideration of the question of the establishment of the post. In response, the U.N. General Assembly in 1993, after long deliberations, agreed on the creation of the post of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. The establishment of the post was based on the recognition of the need to pay even more attention to U.N. activities in the human rights area, and Japan had been consistently supporting the creation of this post since the Vienna Conference. Japan needs to continue its active support to enable the High Commissioner for Human Rights to play important roles in promoting respect for human rights throughout the world.
(a) Problems of Refugees and Displaced Persons Around the World
The number of refugees in the world, which was said to be around 19 million as of September 1993, is further increasing. As a result of regional conflicts and other causes, large numbers of refugees have existed in such parts of the world as Africa, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Palestine, Central America and Indochina. Since the latter half of 1991,new problems concerning refugees and displaced persons have emerged in such countries as Myanmar and the former Yugoslavia. Moreover, in recent years, there are emerging problems in the former Yugoslavia and the former Soviet Union of internally displaced persons that cannot be classified as refugees according to the definition under the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. This phenomenon, together with the question of how to protect and assist them, is attracting international attention.
In order to cope with the problems of refugees and displaced persons, it is imperative for both the United Nations and the countries concerned to make efforts to prevent conflicts and disasters which would produce refugees, as well as to strengthen diplomatic efforts to settle conflicts peacefully. At the same time, it is also essential to provide relief assistance to the massive refugees and displaced persons as well as to provide support for their repatriation and reintegration once the conflict and the danger of oppression in their home countries have subsided.
(b) International Efforts through the United Nations
The United Nations has been playing a central role in dealing with the problem of refugees and displaced persons. However, due to the new humanitarian problems emerging one after another recently, a resolution was adopted by consensus at the U.N. General Assembly in December 1991 on the strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations. Based on this resolution, the United Nations is further actively tackling the issue of humanitarian assistance, with appointment of an emergency relief coordinator and the establishment of the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). DHA is now deploying energetic activities including comprehensive coordination of activities of humanitarian aid organizations both within and outside the United Nations system, and the issuing of the U.N. Consolidated Appeals in order to request donor countries to provide necessary assistance to refugees and displaced persons in individual cases. However, there are mounting voices in the international community for further strengthening of the coordinating functions of the United Nations on humanitarian assistance.
(c) Japan's Role
Because solving problems of refugees and displaced persons is a crucial key to secure medium-and long-term political stability of the region concerned, as well as international peace, it is a humanitarian responsibility of the entire international community to concert efforts to solve the problems. It is, therefore, imperative for Japan, as one of the leading members of the international community, to take an active role in such efforts.
From this viewpoint, Japan has been actively involved in international efforts to solve the problems of refugees and displaced persons around the world. Specifically, in addition to actively participating in international conferences on the refugees problems, Japan has been making financial contributions through such international organizations as the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA), the World Food Programme (WFP), and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as well as providing bilateral aid, such as food aid, to the countries concerned. Furthermore, Japan became a member of the International Organization of Migration (IOM) in November1993, and announced its intention to further contribute to the repatriation and reintegration of refugees and displaced persons as a part of the international efforts to solve the problems of refugees and displaced persons around the world.
As for Indochinese refugees, from a humanitarian viewpoint and with a view to contributing to the peace and stability of the Southeast Asian region, Japan has granted first asylum to the boat people who arrived in Japan (as of the end of 1993, 14,290 refugees including 543 born in Japan were granted the asylum), and established a framework of the cumulative multi-year resettlement of Indochinese refugees, with the ceiling of 10,000, to accept them as permanent residents (as of the end of 1993 a total of 9,246 refugees has been accepted in this frame work).
The U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees, Mrs. Sadako Ogata, has been actively engaged in the relief activities on the problems of refugees around the world, including the problem of Kurdish refugees, repatriation of Cambodian refugees and the displaced per-sons problem of the former Yugoslavia. Her activities were so highly appreciated that she was reelected to the post in November 1993 for another five-year term beginning in January 1994.
Under these circumstances, it is imperative for Japan to make more active contributions toward the solution of the refugees and displaced persons problems throughout the world.
(d) Contribution in Personnel in the Humanitarian Field
There is an increasing tendency in the international community to attach vital importance to the contribution in personnel in assisting refugees and displaced persons, and the United States and European countries have been dispatching NGOs and military forces for humanitarian assistance. While Japan's contribution in personnel in the field of humanitarian assistance had been relatively limited, the enactment of the International Peace Cooperation Law in June 1992 has improved the domestic legal framework for Japan to participate in the humanitarian international relief operations by dispatching personnel. It is of great importance for Japan, within the framework of this legislation, to steadily provide contributions in personnel in the humanitarian field, while making contributions to the U.N. peace-keeping activities. At the same time, Japanese NGOs are expected to accumulate enough experiences to be engaged in the humanitarian activities not only in the Asian region, but also in other regions.
The world population, which reached approximately 5.6 billion at the end of November 1993, is estimated to reach 6.4 billion by the end of this century, 8.5 billion by 2025 and 10 billion by 2050. The population issue is deeply related to the economic policies and the religious and human rights situation in each country. In principle, self-help efforts of the developing countries are indispensable for its solution. As this issue is related closely to the improvements in the status of women, the standards of health care for mothers and children and poverty, it is imperative that family planning should be formulated and implemented, taking well into account the socio-economic development plan of each country.
The population growth is taking place mostly in developing countries, serving to cause such problems as food shortages, unemployment and expansion of slums due to urban migration and, as a result, is hampering socio-economic development of those countries. Moreover, it could help exacerbate the global environment issues such as desertification and global warming.
With this recognition, the efforts of the international community as a whole are being made to address the problem. At the "International Forum on the Population in the 21st Century" held in 1989 under the auspices of the U.N. Population Fund (UNFPA) and the Government of the Netherlands, a target was set to increase the family planning-related funds from $4.5 billion to $9 billion by 2000.
In terms of relations between population and development cooperation, the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) held in April 1990 "the DAC Meeting on Population and Development," based on the agreement that deceleration of the high population growth is indispensable for realizing sustainable growth. It was agreed in this meeting that in order to slow down population growth, strong international and domestic initiatives, as well as strengthening of aid coordination between donor countries and the international aid agencies, were indispensable. Moreover, in terms of relations with environment problems, the population issue was taken up at the U.N. Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) of June 1992, and the close correlation among population growth, sustainable growth and the global environment issue was pointed out. Policymakers were urged to deepen their awareness of this correlation and to give full consideration to the population issue when drawing up their policies on development and the environment.
As there is a deepening recognition that the solution of the population issue is one of the most crucial global-scale issues, the economic declaration of the Tokyo Summit held in July stated the need to cooperate for the success of the International Conference on Population and Development held by the United Nations once a decade and the next is scheduled to be held in Cairo in September 1994.
Japan, which overcame its postwar population growth through economic development, has been actively involved in the international cooperation mainly through the United Nations. In FY 1993, it contributed a total of $63.3 million to the UNFPA, of which $16.9 million was allocated to the International Parenthood Planning Federation (IPPF) (both the world's largest donations). In addition, Japan implemented bilateral technical assistance regarding family planning to countries including Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Turkey, Egypt, Kenya, Mexico and Peru. Moreover, Japan is also extending financial assistance to "The Independent Commission on Population and Quality of Life" which was established in April 1993 following the proposal by the former World Bank President Robert S. McNamara (the chairperson of the Commission is Ms. Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo, former Prime Minister of Portugal. From Japan, Mr. Taro Nakayama, former Foreign Minister, is participating in personal capacity). In addition, Japan held in Tokyo in January 1994 in cooperation with the UNFPA and the United Nations University, the "Meeting of Eminent Persons on Population and Development," with a view to producing substantive inputs to the International Conference on Population and Development.
3-6. International Cultural Exchange and Cooperation
(1) Basic Recognition
In deepening overseas understanding of Japan and promoting further internationalization of Japan, the international cultural exchange plays an increasingly important role. In particular, a further expansion of Japan's contribution in the field of cultural exchange and cooperation is indispensable for correcting the rather distorted image of Japan which is mainly focused on its economic aspects. Therefore, the Government of Japan places importance on such aspects of cultural exchanges.
In order to promote international cultural exchanges and cultural cooperation, the second "Advisory Group on International Cultural Exchange" (headed by Chairman Akito Arima) was set up in October 1993, which is to submit a set of new recommendations to the Prime Minister by the end of March 1994.
(2) Promoting International Mutual Understanding
(a) Cooperation in Overseas Japanese Language Education and Japanese Studies
With increasing overseas interest in Japan in recent years, the number of foreigners learning Japanese has risen to well over 1 million. Assistance to Japanese language education and Japanese studies abroad is one of the most effective means to deepen the foreign interest in and understanding of Japan as well as to promote exchanges with foreign countries; therefore the Government of Japan is actively cooperating in these fields.
(b) Introduction of Japanese Culture Overseas
The Government of Japan organizes a variety of cultural events such as exhibitions, stage performances, and music through the Japan Foundation and private sector cooperation. It is also actively supporting events designed to introduce Japanese culture throughout the world.
In 1993, Japanese culture was actively introduced in Germany (through the Berlin Art Week, Dusseldorf Japan Week) and in Switzerland (Zurich International June Festival), increasing the interest in Japan.
(c) Introduction of Foreign Cultures
In the belief that cultural exchanges should be two-way, the Government of Japan is making efforts to introduce cultures of other countries. Along with the events introducing Asian cultures by the Japan Foundation ASEAN Culture Center and the African Week in October 1993, the Government of Japan, in cooperation with Japanese embassies abroad, supported, in a variety of ways, various events of municipalities and private organizations aimed at introducing foreign cultures.
(d) Exchange of Persons
Exchange of persons, which is one of the most effective methods for promoting mutual understanding, is the basis of international exchange. The Government of Japan promotes exchanges at all levels in every field, from youth to eminent intellectuals and diplomats.
(i) Youth and Student Exchanges
Exchange of youth who are the future of a country is important. Approximately 600 youths per year from all over the world are invited to Japan through the "Japan Study Tour Program for Youth." Some 3,800 foreign youths from 10 countries, mainly from English speaking areas were invited through the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) program, to participate in language teaching and international exchange activities in public junior and senior high schools and local municipalities. This helps to promote mutual understanding at the grassroots level.
Student exchanges contribute to promoting human resource development, as well as increase the number of sympathizers of Japan who would bridge the two countries after returning home. The Government of Japan thus makes efforts in this field, by disseminating necessary information and carrying out after-care programs such as assistance for alumni activities through the Japanese embassies abroad.
(ii) Intellectual and Grassroots Exchanges
In response to structural changes in the international community, efforts to promote intellectual dialogues on the ideal form of the future international cooperation is being undertaken not only among governments but also among intellectuals in various fields including the economic circle and academia. Japan needs to strengthen its presence in such fora.
At the same time, as foreign and domestic policies have become inseparable, the importance of international exchanges rooted in local communities has been increasing. The Government of Japan is trying to further both intellectual and grassroots exchanges through projects under the Japan Foundation; with the United States, through the Center for Global Partnership (CGP) established in 1991, and with Europe, through the new budget appropriations started in 1993.
(iii) Sports Exchanges
As sports exchanges contribute to international goodwill and friendship transcending the differences in the political systems, religion or culture, the Government of Japan is cooperating in holding various sport events such as the Olympic Games, as well as in dispatching and inviting experts in this field.
(3) Promotion of International Cultural Cooperation
(a) Cultural and Intellectual Assistance to Developing Countries and Former Socialist Countries
(i) Human Resources and Intellectual Assistance
As developing countries and the former socialist countries are eager to gain assistance for human resource development, Japan is expected to make expanded cooperation in this field based on Japan's experiences and knowledge.
Therefore, Japan is actively embarking on nurturing human resources in these countries through programs which invites students, youth, young researchers and diplomats to study in Japan, as well as through the cultural cooperation projects of the Japan Foundation which dispatch and invite experts in the cultural field. In particular, Japan has started in 1993 its active assistance to the efforts of countries like Mongolia to improve their legal systems.
(ii) Cultural Grant Aid
Since 1975 the Government of Japan has also been extending cultural grant aid to assist developing countries in promoting their cultural activities and education. A total of \24.9725 billion to 634 projects in 96 developing countries has been extended so far. In FY 1992, the Government provided financial cooperation to 56 projects including "sports equipment for the physically disabled in Thailand."
(b) Cooperation to Promote the Preservation of Tangible and Non-Tangible Cultural Heritage
In various parts of the world, many cultural monuments, cultural properties, and traditional culture unique to each nation are in imminent danger of being lost without adequate preservation or restoration work, as a result of rapid economic development and social changes. Based on its own experiences, Japan is making the following cooperation as part of its international contribution in this field:
(i) Cooperation for the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Monuments
The Government of Japan, in addition to bilateral cooperation, has been cooperating in the international campaign to safeguard the world's cultural monuments led by the U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in which Japan established the "Japanese Trust Fund for the Preservation of the World Cultural Heritage" in FY 1989 and contributed $14.5 million by the end of FY 1993.
(ii) Dispatch and Invitation of Experts on Preservation of Cultural Heritage
For the preservation of cultural heritage, training of local experts is crucial, and the Government of Japan is dispatching and inviting experts on the preservation of cultural heritage as programs of the Japan Foundation since FY 1990. In addition, cooperation to restore Japanese traditional artwork abroad by using Japanese restoration techniques is also being extended.
(iii) The International Conference on the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor
At the proposal of Japan, and being co-chaired by Japan and France, an intergovernmental conference was held in Tokyo in October 1993, to promote international cooperation on preserving the Angkor Wat ruins, which is not only a world cultural heritage but also a symbol of the unification of Cambodia. A total of 30 countries including Cambodia, and seven international organizations including UNESCO, which served as the secretariat of the conference, participated in this conference. It adopted the "Tokyo Declaration" calling for the creation of a committee to coordinate cooperation by various countries and international organizations.
(iv) Promoting the Preservation of Non-Tangible Cultural Properties
Cooperation in the preservation and promotion of non-tangible cultural heritages such as traditional music, dancing and craftsmanship has not been sufficient so far compared with the cooperation for tangible cultural properties. In view of this situation, the Government of Japan embarked on more extensive support which includes sending survey teams, dispatching and inviting experts and establishing a trust fund in UNESCO on the preservation of non-tangible cultural assets in FY 1993 ($250,000 for the first year). Moreover, it hosted an international conference in Tokyo in November on the preservation and promotion of traditional cultures in East Asia, which adopted a declaration calling on the international community to recognize the need to promote non-tangible cultural assets.
(4) Strengthening of Institutions for Promoting Cultural Exchange
Japan has concluded agreements with 25 countries and arrangements with seven countries on the promotion of cultural exchanges. In 1993, Japan held consultations on future cultural exchange with 11 countries, including France and China.
The Government of Japan has been promoting a wide-ranging international cultural exchange and cooperation as mentioned above through the Japan Foundation, the core organization for international cultural exchanges. Because the scale of the Japan Foundation compared with that of other similar organizations abroad is still much smaller [as seen from the total budget and total number of employees in FY 1993 : the British Council (United Kingdom) \94.3 billion, 6,493 staff; Goethe Institute (Germany) \27 billion, 3,431 staff; and the Japan Foundation (Japan) \21.4 billion with 252 staffs], further efforts should be made to improve projects and expand its budget as well as the number of employees.
Moreover, in order to respond to mounting interest in international cultural cooperation, the Government of Japan is seeking to further promote international cultural exchanges in the private sector by introducing a tax incentive (the so-called tax deductions for international exchange activities) for donations to those non-profit organizations with the main purpose of fostering international exchanges which fulfill certain criteria.
3-7. Cooperation on Science and Technology
(1) The Role to be Played by Science and Technology
As the international community gropes for a peaceful and prosperous world, science and technology has become increasingly important, serving as a basis of economic development through the creation of new markets, and playing a major role in solving global-scale problems such as the environment and AIDS. In particular, as an increasing number of scientific projects require massive amounts of funds and long-term and large-scale management, international cooperation in this field holds a major significance. Under these circumstances, it is necessary for Japan to play an active role in applying its sophisticated science and technology not only to product developments, but also to the development of new energy sources like nuclear fusion, and in basic science fields such as activities in the microscopic world and in outer space. In addition, it should play an active role in bilateral cooperation activities such as joint research, exchange of researchers and information exchanges and multilateral cooperation activities.
(2) Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation in Science and Technology
(a) Bilateral Cooperation
Japan signed science and technology cooperation agreements with about 20 countries, and is holding regular consultations with these and some other countries to discuss various issues to promote science and technology cooperation as well as to select joint research projects.
In 1993, an agreement was reached at the Japan-EU Ministerial Meeting in January to establish the "Japan-EC Forum on Science and Technology" that includes ministerial level meetings, and in May a high-level committee with the United States was held.
As a new bilateral agreement on science and technology, a space cooperation agreement was signed with Russia during President Boris Yeltsin's visit to Japan in October.
(b) Multilateral Cooperation
A number of multilateral cooperations are under way in the science and technology field, such as that on the Human Frontier Science Program (HFSP) which is based on Japan's proposal and designed to promote multilateral joint research aiming at elucidating the sophisticated mechanisms of living organisms, and cooperation on the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) designed to research and develop the nuclear fusion which is said to be the ultimate source of clean and unlimited energy.
In particular, a major stride was taken in 1993 concerning the issue of Russian participation in the Space Station cooperation program. In line with the Space Station cooperation agreement signed with the United States, Canada and the member countries of the European Space Agency (ESA) in September 1988, Japan is participating in a program to put a manned Space Station into orbit round the earth to carry out global and astronomical observations and various experiments requiring the space environment. In September 1993, a joint statement on cooperation in space between the United States and Russia was issued, which implies future participation or involvement of Russia in the Space Station cooperation program. There after, consultations have been made among the countries concerned, and in December, Russia was officially invited to participate in this program
With the scale of science and technology projects getting huge, the need for international cooperation in this field is increasingly stressed. Against this background, the cancellation in October of the Super-conducting Super Collider (SSC) Project (Note), representing these gigantic projects which has been promoted by the United States, provoked a debate on how to proceed with international cooperation on mega-science projects in the basic science field which requires massive amount of funds. Thus, it is time to seriously discuss Japan's role in such mega-science projects.
Note: Since 1990, the U.S. Government has been reviewing the scale of U.S. forces deployed in East Asia and the Pacific region against the background of a severe financial situation and a changing international situation. In this review, the 1990s are divided into three stages; 1990-92, 1993-95 and 1996 onward. U.S. forces in Japan were reduced by approximately 4,800 personnel in the first stage and have been reduced by about700in the second stage.
With regards to U.S. forces in Korea, approximately 7,000 personnel were reduced in the first stage, but the scheduled reduction of 6,500 personnel in the second stage has been postponed due to North Korea's suspected development of nuclear weapons.
Note: Outline of the views of the Government of Japan on the Equitable Representation on and Increase in the Membership of the Security Council is as follows:
(i) The role of the United Nations in the new international situation has been becoming more important.
(ii) In order for the United Nations to meet the expectations of the international community, it needs to reflect recent changes in the international situation so that it can better represent the general will of the Member States. The effective functions of the Security Council should be further strengthened.
(iii) It is important that those countries having both the will and the adequate capacity to contribute to world peace and stability be actively engaged; this being the case, the Security Council, and in the end, the United Nations as a whole, will be certainly strengthened. In this context, Japan is prepared to do all it can to discharge its responsibilities on the Security Council.
Note: Based on the START I counting rules.
Note: OPCW is an institution to be established in The Hague to ensure the implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention and for consultations and cooperation among the State Parties. The technical secretariat of this organization will implement inspections on the State Parties.
Note1:Specialized items for nuclear purposes are controlled by the London Guideline Part I, and items used both for nuclear and non-nuclear purposes are controlled by the London Guideline Part II.
Note2:MTCR is a regime which controls exports by major supplier countries of missiles capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction (nuclear weapons, biological and chemical weapons) and their related technology.
Note: The Cairns Group, consisting of 14 agricultural exporting countries which do not provide export subsidies, includes Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Indonesia, Argentina and Brazil, etc.
Note: DNMEs: The OECD is having dialogues on such policies as trade and investment policies with various non-members at an advanced stage of economic development. (Dynamic Non-Member Economies includes: Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Argentina, Chile, Brazil and Mexico).
Note: Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) refer to voluntary organizations of citizens with an aim of promoting the public interest. In terms of development cooperation, they are non-profit private aid organizations active in making contributions to developing countries through financial aid, material aid, dispatch of personnel, accepting trainees and development education.
Note: The DAC is one of the committees of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Its purpose is to discuss issues related to development assistance.
Note: The four principles of the ODA Charter:
Taking into account comprehensively each recipient country's requests, its socio-economic conditions, and Japan's bilateral relations with the recipient, Japan's ODA will be provided in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter (especially sovereign equality and non-intervention in domestic matters), as well as the following four principles.
(1) Environmental conservation and development should be pursued in tandem.
(2) Any use of ODA for military purpose or for aggravation of international conflicts should be avoided.
(3) Full attention should be paid to trends in recipient countries' military expenditures, their development and production of mass destruction weapons and missiles, their export and import of arms, etc., so as to maintain and strengthen international peace and stability, and from the viewpoint that developing countries should place appropriate priorities in the allocation of their resources on their own economic and social development.
(4) Full attention should be paid to efforts for promoting democratization and introduction of a market-oriented economy, and the situation regarding the securing of basic human rights and freedoms in the recipient country.
Note1:Development studies consist of writing study reports on development programs by way of dispatching study teams with a view to assisting developing countries in their improvement of infrastructures for socio-economic development.
Note2:Development cooperation consists of a combination of soft-loan funds and technical assistance (dispatching experts, accepting trainees and implementing various surveys).
Note3:General grant refers to general project grant aid, debt relief, non-project grant aid for structural adjustment support, and Small-Scale Grant Assistance (Grant Aid Assistance for Grassroots Projects) which are extended to relatively small projects implemented by local municipalities, NGOs and the like.
Note: Counter-narcotic measures jointly undertaken by countries surrounding drug producing areas.
Note: The SSC Project: A project, in which a huge ring-shaped proton accelerator is built, to make protons collide at nearly the speed of light and observe the reactions of coilision with the aim of elucidating the ultimate structure of substances and the origin of space.