Section 3. Coping with Global Issues
Item 1. Global Environmental Problem
1. Background
In recent years, environmental problems on a global scale that seriously affect the very existence of humankind - global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer, the diminution of tropical forests, and so on - have increased in magnitude. It is generally recognized that the problems are such that mankind must tackle these problems with all its wisdom.
Global environmental disruptions are set apart from conventional ones in that in a global case, a country that generates pollution is not always the country that suffers from the pollution; pollution can cross borders inflicting damage on a wide area. Environmental damage progresses so gradually over a long period of time that it may be too late to take action by the time the damage becomes apparent. Such being the case, effective preventive measures should be devised.
Such are the characteristics of the global environmental problem that its solution requires the efforts of all countries of the world, and international arrangements to address the issue have been launched in recent years.
2. International Trends
Some conspicuous international moves related to global environmental problems are as follows.
(1) General Moves
In April 1990, a conference (the White House Conference Concerning Scientific and Economic Research on Global-Scale Changes) to examine scientific and economic research on the global environmental problem was held in Washington D.C. hosted by the U.S. Government, and confirmed the importance of deepening scientific and economic knowledge on the preservation of Earth's environment.
In May 1990, a meeting of Environmental Ministers was held in Bergen, Norway, under the auspices of the United Nations European Economic Committee (ECE) (Being not a member nation, Japan sent its delegation as an observer). The meeting agreed that each member nation would develop a strategy or goal to control greenhouse gases by the time negotiations started on a convention providing the framework for the prevention of global warming.
In July 1990, nations participating at the Houston Summit reported on their individual action being taken to solve global environmental issues and confirmed their determination to tackle the problem through their concerted efforts.
(2) Problem of Global Warming
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), set up in November 1988 by the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to carry out a comprehensive examination of global warming, continued their work at three working groups; assessment of scientific information, assessment of effects of global warming, and development of a strategy to deal with them. Then in June 1989 and February 1990, the 2nd and 3rd Plenary Sessions were held to coordinate discussions at the working groups.
In November 1989, a ministerial meeting on atmospheric pollution and climatic change was held under the sponsorship of the Dutch Government and adopted a Noordwijk Declaration calling for stabilization of emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases as early as possible at a level to be considered at the IPCC and the 2nd World Climate Conference held in Geneva in October and November 1990.
In June 1990, Japan decided to formulate an action program for the prevention of global warming early in the fall of the same year, and to set appropriate goals required to stabilize the emission of greenhouse gases at the lowest possible level by 2000, with due attention to the Noordwijk Declaration and after thorough study. Also, at the Houston Summit, Japan proposed to develop a comprehensive and long-term plan ("The New Earth 21") to control and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in concert with the whole world, thereby to regenerate planet Earth facing environmental problems over the next 100 years, and the proposal was incorporated into the Economic Declaration.
(3) Protection of the Ozone Layer
In June 1990, the 2nd meeting of the parties to the Montreal Protocol (adopted in September 1987) on substances that deplete the ozone layer was, held in London and it was agreed to set up a multilateral fund ($ 160 million to $240 million to be disbursed over the next three years) to drastically upgrade ozone layer protection measures and assistance to developing countries.
These measures taken ahead of other areas are expected to serve as a model for coping with other global environmental problems.
(4) Conservation of Tropical Forests
The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) (Note) called for, at its 7th board meeting in November 1989, financial contributions to be made for sustainable development of tropical forests and preservation of the ecology. The ITTO's 8th board meeting held in May 1990 established a goal of adopting a measure, sometime before the year 2000, to limit the timber trade to only timber produced under sustainable forest management, the meeting also adopted a "sustainable tropical forest management guideline" and work on its action plan.
At the Houston Summit, the participating countries reached an agreement to start negotiations toward an international agreement on tropical and other forests.
3. Future Trends
A number of international conferences on global environment, including the 2nd World Climate Conference and meetings to negotiate a draft convention on the prevention of global warming will be held toward the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development to be held in Brazil in June 1992. Consequently, global environmental issues will continue to attract worldwide attention. In particular, the easing of East-West tensions in recent years has helped spotlight the global environmental problem as a major issue for all mankind and the world to tackle, and the tendency is expected to continue into the future.
Regarding the global environmental problem, a matter for immediate concern may be the talks to draft a treaty to prevent global warming. But a successful conclusion to the talks is not expected. This is because, unlike the case of protecting the ozone layer, the warming problem involves more complicated issues such as the control of CO2 and conservation of tropical forests.
4. Japan's Role in the Global Environmental Problem
To effectively deal with the global environmental problem, it is important for Japan to play an active role matching its position in the international community. Japan believes that the problem should be solved through concerted efforts of the international community while trying to ensure "sustainable development" predicated on harmony between the environment and the economy, with due consideration to conditions and needs of developing countries. In this context, Japan is required to contribute to the development of an international framework for the area of environmental issues and to step up assistance to developing countries.
Needed in particular is international financial and technological cooperation as the global environmental problem involves many challenges that demand more than self-help efforts of developing countries.
Japan has all along encouraged international environmental protection and is the world leading provider of bilateral economic cooperation in this field. At the Arch Summit in July 1989, Japan announced a plan to increase environment-related bilateral and multilateral assistance up to a maximum \300 billion in the following three years (fiscal 1989-91). The plan is now being implemented (the fiscal 1989 disbursement amounted to \129 billion). Cooperation with international organizations is equally important to expand environment-related assistance. From this standpoint, Japan has been making positive contributions to the preservation of the global environment through aid to the UNEP, ITTO, and other international organizations involved in environmental issues. At the 8th ITTO board meeting in May 1990, Japan announced a capital contribution of $20,130,000. At the Houston Summit in July 1990, Japan pledged to collaborate in the plan to establish "The UNEP Center of Global Environment Technology" in Japan, should the plan be formally decided by the UNEP. Japan has also announced it is ready to make appropriate contributions to a multilateral fund for the protection of the ozone layer.
Japan will host the 8th meeting of the parties to the Washington Convention (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) in the spring of 1992, and the 5th meeting of parties to the Ramsar Convention (the Convention on Internationally Important Marshland as Habitats of-Water Birds) in 1993. Japan's hosting of such meetings are expected to demonstrate this country's strong commitment to the two conventions and consequently to overall environmental problems.
1. Current Situation of International Drug Problem
Recently, the problem of narcotics has assumed an increasingly serious and complex magnitude in the international context. Drug abuse has become a serious problem not only in developed countries such as the United States and Europe, but in developing countries as well.
The world has three principal narcotics producing centers: the "Golden Triangle" stretching over Thailand, Myanmar and Laos, and the "Golden Crescent" over Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran, where heroin originates while cocaine comes mainly from three countries in the Andes; namely Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia. Efforts by the countries concerned to curtail production in these areas are yet to bring about any visible results.
In the meantime, international drug trafficking has been growing rapidly. Recently, various international criminal syndicates are involved in drug trafficking, and money laundering to "clean up" funds obtained from drug deals is carried out in more and more sophisticated ways. The aggregate value of the illicit trafficking trade is estimated to have exceeded that of the oil trade and is next to that of the arms trade.
2. International Cooperation Against Drug Problem
To prevent the banks and other financial institutions from being used to clean up funds generated from illicit drug trafficking the "Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering," established in line with the Economic Declaration at the Arch Summit in 1989, assessed the current situation and studied the possibility of strengthening legal and administrative cooperation. Then in February 1990, the working group prepared a report containing 40 recommendations.
The United Nations Special Session of the General Assembly on Narcotic Drugs held in New York in February 1990 adopted a political declaration and a global program of action proposing bilateral, inter-regional or multilateral mechanisms to put an end to the abuse of narcotics and psychotropic drugs, treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts, control of drug supply, prevention of illicit trafficking, crackdown on drug-related funds and other illegal money, as well as the reinforcement of the legal system including court procedure and law enforcement.
In April 1990, the World Ministerial Summit to Reduce Demand for Drugs and Combat the Cocaine Threat was held in London bringing together minister-level officials from 112 countries. Following detailed and technical discussions on reduction of drug demand and threats from cocaine, it adopted a political declaration.
In June, representatives of 16 countries-11 EC member countries (excepting Greece), Japan, the United States, Australia, Canada, Sweden - met in Dublin to establish practical and policy-related coordination in international cooperation in drug problems. The meeting ended by inaugurating the Intergovernmental Consultative Mechanism on the drug problem among developed countries.
Another noteworthy development was the four-American-state summit meeting held in Cartagena, Colombia, in February 1990, attended by presidents of Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and the United States. The meeting issued the Declaration of Cartagena.
3. Japan's Contribution to Solution of Drug Problem
As drug abuse and trafficking are posing a serious threat to the well-being of all mankind, Japan is taking an active role in dealing with the problem, with an emphasis on Asia where Japan is expected to make effective contributions. Japan has participated in international meetings on the drug problem, including the United Nations Special Session of the General Assembly on Narcotic Drugs and the World Ministerial Summit to Reduce Demand for Drugs and Combat the Cocaine Threat, and in December 1989, it hosted the Japan-U.S. bilateral experts meeting on drugs.
In parallel with these efforts, Japan has been exercising measures at the national border to prevent the inflow of illegal drugs making sure that Japan is not utilized as a transit base for drugs on their way to other countries including the United States.
Japan intends to continue its support for the United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control (UNFDAC) which has been conducting financial assistance and other activities for the prevention of drug abuse, reduction of drug production, prevention of illicit trafficking, etc.
Japan holds seminars on control of narcotic offenses, etc. by inviting law enforcement officers responsible for drug control from Central and South American countries. Through these cooperative activities, Japan will continue its economic and technical cooperation which is vital in effectively fighting the drug problem.
Item 3. Problems of International Terrorism
1. Overview
International terrorism poses a serious threat to world peace and security and continues to be an important issue of international politics, which has repeatedly been taken up in the United Nations meetings and the summit meetings of the 7 industrialized countries. Japan, resolutely opposing any form of terrorism regardless of its motives, has been actively involved in the international cooperation for prevention of terrorism through the summit meetings and international organizations.
2. Recent Trends of International Terrorism
International terrorist incidents ranging from bombing to armed attack, kidnapping and assassination continue to occur in many parts of the world. In particular, aircraft bombing which indiscriminately sacrifices the lives of many innocent people is a great menace to the international community. Recent incidents include the bombing of a French UTA airliner in September 1989, and a Colombia Avianca airliner in November.
The problem of European and American hostages held by radical factions in Lebanon is also of great concern to the international community. In July 1989, following the announcement that an American hostage had been executed, the U.N. Security Council adopted a resolution denouncing hostage taking. In April 1990, the situation took a turn for the better when five hostages were released successively.
Regarding the Japanese Red Army, there have been no apparent signs that it has been involved in terrorist acts since August 1988. However, the group remains a direct threat to the international community and Japan as it still declares to fight against so-called "imperialism" and the Emperor system and indicates it will take action for the release of its jailed members. The group's activities must be kept under close observation.
Other notable developments: terrorism overtly sponsored by states, which was a frequent occurrence till about 1986, has decreased in the face of growing international cooperation and efforts against terrorism, and terrorism by drug syndicates in Colombia and other countries has intensified to become a serious problem for these countries as well as the international community.
3. Progress in International Cooperation Against Terrorism
At present, bilateral and mutilateral cooperation is being actively promoted to counter terrorism. The international efforts range from the development of international laws on terrorist acts, such as aircraft bombing, hijacking, and hostage taking, the development and implementation of practical measures to prevent those acts, to information exchanges. Also, it is very important for each country to take a determined attitude against international terrorism. In this context, one important contribution every country can make to the furtherance of international cooperation is to repeatedly make clear its political will to categorically oppose and fight terrorism.
The prevention of aircraft bombings is one of the most urgent matters requiring international cooperation, and intensive efforts are being taken to that end. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has conducted a technical feasibility study about making plastic explosives, often used in aircraft bombings, easily detectable by putting a special additive in the explosives during the manufacturing process. In April 1990, the ICAO's Legal Committee drew up a treaty draft that would make the chemical additive an international obligation. At the same time, the ICAO has taken various measures, including setting up a special fund, to assist countries which have not been able to meet international standards for aviation security for economic and/or technical reasons, while calling for cooperation from the member countries to this end.
Japan, while actively participating in these international activities, is hosting aviation security seminars for personnel concerned from developing countries through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) since fiscal 1986.
At the Houston Summit in July 1990, the "Statement on Transnational Issues" was issued to reiterate commitment of the participating countries to concerted efforts in fighting against international terrorism, including cooperation over aviation security and the problem of hostage taking. In December 1989, the U.N. General Assembly adopted by concensus a resolution against international terrorism. In addition, the issue has been increasingly taken up at bilateral summit meetings. Japan, at its summit with the United States in September 1989, expressed its intention to step up international cooperation for prevention of terrorism as part of global partnership between the two countries.
Furthermore, the recent political changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe are expected to further expand and reinforce such international cooperation.
4. International Terrorism and Japan's Position
Today, international terrorism is no longer a problem foreign to Japan and its people. With the rapid increase in the numbers of Japanese people traveling overseas and Japanese companies operating abroad, there is a growing possibility of Japanese citizens becoming victims of international terrorism. Because of their increasingly visible presence abroad, concomitant to the elevation of Japan's international standing, the Japanese and their corporations are more likely to become direct targets of terrorism than before. For instance, in China and Hong Kong after the "June 4th Incident," a number of threatening letters announcing murder plots against the Japanese people have arrived in succession. Also, in May 1990, a Japanese agricultural adviser of a nongovernmental organization was kidnapped and held on Negros Island of the Philippines for two months by the antigovernment communist guerrilla organization "New People's Army (NPA).
In the event that Japanese citizens are taken hostage by terrorists who make unlawful demands, the Japanese Government will make its best efforts to rescue the hostages safely. At the same time, the government will deal with such an event firmly adhering to the principle of making no concessions to terrorists which is being confirmed repeatedly by the summit meetings of the 7 industrialized countries and elsewhere in order to prevent the recurrence of a similar incident and maintain law and order. The understanding and cooperation of citizens are vital to enable the government to act in accordance with the above policy.
1. Refugee Problem
Today, there are an estimated 14 million refugees or more in various parts of the world. The problem of refugees not only raise humanitarian issues but may also adversely affect the peace and stability of the areas involved. Japan has been playing an active role in dealing with the refugee problem worldwide as part of its "Cooperation for Peace" initiative. It has participated in international conferences on refugee problems held by the United Nations and other organizations, and extended multilateral aid through international organizations including the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), the World Food Program (WFP) and the International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC), and bilateral aid to related countries. To this date, Japan's assistance related to the refugee problem totals about $1,880 million.
The Indochinese refugee problem is in its 15th year. But the exodus of boat people continues causing economic, social and political strains in Hong Kong and the ASEAN countries which provide them with first asylum. In addition, as the boat people include more and more so called economic refugees who illegally leave their countries in search of a better life, the ASEAN countries, one after another introduced the refugee status-determination process, or more commonly, "screening system" in order to determine the status of the asylum seekers, in line with the Comprehensive Plan of Action adopted at the International Conference on Indochinese Refugees in June 1989. In September 1989, Japan also decided to introduce the same process to deter exodus of the boat people and to contribute to durable solutions of the Indochinese refugee problem. At the same time, Japan has provided the largest financial aid to address the problem among other countries, including the largest contribution among related countries ($40,600,000 in total by the end of May 1990) to cover the expenses for implementation of the Comprehensive Plan of Action and thus to alleviate burdens on Hong Kong and the ASEAN countries which provide asylum seekers with shelter. Furthermore, in accordance with the pledge made at the International Conference on the Indochinese Refugee Problem, Japan is making efforts to accept, over the three years from June 1989, 1,000 Vietnamese refugees for resettlement who are staying for a long time and given first asylum in Hong Kong and the ASEAN countries.
It should be noted here that as many as 3,498 boat people, so far the largest number in any one year, landed in Japan in 1989, and that 2,804 of the arrivals were later found to be illegal entrants from China. Of these illegal entrants, 1,520 had been deported in 4 groups to China by June 1990.
2. Disaster Relief
International relief efforts have proven necessary in the case of natural disasters, such as earthquakes, typhoons, floods, and volcanic eruptions. Japan provides prompt relief measures at such instances by itself and also collaborates with international organizations engaged in disaster relief operations.
When a natural disaster occurs abroad, Japan collects information through its embassies and such agencies as the Office of the U.N. Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO). Japan decides on the size of its relief efforts (number of persons in a relief team, type and quantity of in-kind contribution, and amount of financial aid), and promptly translates the decision into action based on such information and requests made by the affected country or relevant international organizations.
Japan's disaster relief measures are two-pronged. It dispatches Japan Disaster Relief Teams (medical teams, rescue teams, and experts team for damage control and rehabilitation) through JICA to the affected country, and also provides grant-type financial assistance. These two forms of aid are combined depending on the extent of damage and requests from the affected country. Japan responded to major earthquakes in Iran in June 1990 and in the Philippines in July by expeditiously extending financial aid and also dispatching Japan Disaster Relief Teams.
Note: An international organization set up for the purpose of promoting cooperation in tropical timber trade, and conserving and developing tropical forests for maintaining the ecological system among other things. Japan helped the organization to locate its headquarters in Yokohama and made the largest financial contributions (cumulative $27.03 million as of the end of fiscal 1989) among member nations as part of Japan's active cooperation program for the organization.