Section 3. Coping with Problems Common to Mankind
1-1. Background
As economic activities of mankind gain momentum, they are exerting serious impact on the global environment, which supports the very existence of mankind, as seen in the phenomenon of global warming, depletion of the ozone layer, dimunition of tropical forests and desertification. Since economic activities of individual countries transcend national borders, and given the deepening interdependence in the international community, global environmental problems cannot be tackled by the efforts of a single country. Since environmental damage progresses gradually over a long period of time, it may be too late to take action by the time the damage becomes visible. In addition, any remedy generally takes so long and costs so much that effective preventive measures must be devised at an early stage. Enhancement of scientific knowledge is required for this. It is imperative for all the countries to cooperate in tackling global environmental problems. Not only the industrialized countries, but also the developing countries must take active part in solving the problems. Toward that goal, it is necessary to give due consideration to the particular situation of the developing countries, based on the concept of "sustainable development," which aims at harmonizing environment and economy.
Japan has had the experience of overcoming the problem of industrial pollution while maintaining high economic growth. Using the knowledge and technology on environmental preservation accumulated in this process, Japan should contribute positively to the preservation of the global environment.
The global environment issue is given top priority in international politics as seen in the importance attached to it at the G-7 Summit meetings in recent years. At present, various attempts concerning the global environment issue are being made in preparation for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) to be held in Brazil in June 1992. The world's interests in the global environmental problems are expected to rise further.
1-2. International Trends
Of the international trends related to the global environmental problems, major considerations are as described below. Japan is taking an active role in these international efforts in each area.
(1) United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) is scheduled to be held in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the 20th anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in 1972 in Stockholm. This upcoming conference, called the "Earth Summit," is expected to become an international conference of unprecedented scale on global environmental problems with anticipated participation of numerous heads of states and ministers from all over the world. Already a series of preparatory meetings have been held since August 1990 in an effort aiming at the signing of the Framework Convention on Climate Change to prevent global warming, as well as of the convention on the protection of biological diversity and on preservation of forests, and at the adoption of the world Charter that delineates the basic principles for sustainable development and of Agenda 21 which is a comprehensive action program preparing for the 21st century.
At the London Summit of July 1991, all of the participating countries recognized the importance of global environmental problems and indicated their determination to give unanimous support to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.
(2) Global Warming
It is important to implement all feasible measures without delay to prevent global warming, while endeavoring to expand scientific knowledge and information, given that some areas are yet to be scientifically elucidated. Moreover, a legal framework agreed upon over the world is necessary for an overall solution of the problem, based on a comprehensive global strategy with a long-term perspective.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climatic Changes (IPCC) held its fourth meeting in August 1990 and issued its first report on the assessment of scientific information, the evaluation of impacts of global warming and a strategy to deal with them.
The 2nd World Meteorological Conference was convened in October to November 1990. Responding to the IPCC report, it adopted a Ministerial Declaration on controlling emission of gases generating greenhouse effects, extending support to the developing countries and beginning the negotiations on a Framework Convention on Climate Change.
In October 1990, just prior to the 2nd World Meteorological Conference, the Government of Japan formulated an action program on the prevention of global warming, incorporating goals for controlling the emission of gases with greenhouse effects. Furthermore, Japan has been calling for the need to develop a long-term initiative plan ("The New Earth 21") to be supported by concerted efforts of all nations to control and reduce the emission of gases contributing to the greenhouse effect.
In order to reach an agreement in the June 1992 meeting of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, the first negotiating session was held in February 1991 on the Framework Convention on Climate Change. At the second negotiating session in June, Japan was selected as one of the co-chairmen of a working group.
(3) Protection of the Ozone Layer
The stratospheric ozone layer is known to absorb harmful infrared rays. Since it has become evident that this function is being destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), various international regulations have been introduced to control production and consumption of materials harmful to the ozone layer, within the legal frameworks of the Vienna Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol for Controlling Substances that Destroy the Ozone Layer.
At the second meeting of the countries party to the Protocols held in June 1990, agreement was reached to set up a fund to support the developing countries active in the protection of the ozone layer. The fund was established in January 1991.
At the third meeting held in June 1991, a list of products which include substances known to deplete the ozone layer was adopted with the objective of restricting trade. It was also decided that studies should be undertaken so that restricted substances such as CFCs will be altogether abolished prior to the deadline year of 2000, given the unanticipated speed with which the ozone layer is being depleted.
(4) Preservation of Biological Diversity
It has been feared that the diversity of species on earth is diminishing and conferences were held in November 1990, February 1991 and June to July of 1991 to discuss a convention on biological diversity. Negotiations are under way aiming at the signing of the convention at the coming U.N. Conference on the Environment and Development. At present, while there is a general agreement on the individual country to set up a preservation plan, there is a split in views about the need of transferring technology in biological engineering.
(5) Conservation of Tropical Forests
Tropical forests are disappearing at a rate of 17 million hectares annually. Conservation of tropical forests is thus becoming an urgent task, as the pace of disappearance continues to accelerate. Adjustment between sustainable development of tropical forests and their preservation is a major issue, as forests serve various functions, such as in playing an economic role of supplying timber and charcoal, while bsorbing carbon dioxide which causes global warming, as well as offering places for inhabitance to wildlife.
The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), at its 8th executive council held in June 1990, established a strategic goal to limit the timber trade by the year 2000 to timber produced under sustainable forest management only. At the ITTO's 10th executive council held in May-June 1991, the member countries agreed on specific measures to attain the goal, such as the member countries submitting progress reports annually, and revised various procedures to ensure smoother operation of its activities.
Japan is now implementing concrete measures aiming to attain this goal by adopting "Environmentally Friendly Three Principles on Tropical Timber Trade." The three principles are (1) monitoring of trade, (2) diversification of products and an increase of value added in the producing countries and (3) rationalization and more efficient use of timber.
(6) International Agreement on Conservation of Forests
Since the adoption of the Economic Declaration at the Houston Summit of July 1990, activities are gaining momentum in trying to reach an international agreement on conservation of forests in preparation for the UNCED. From the very first preparatory meeting of the UNCED held in August 1990, Japan, in terms of conservation of forests and promotion of sustainable use of forest that are acceptable to the developing countries, has been calling for a step-by-step approach of adoption of a "World Forest Charter" which delineates basic principles without a legally binding force, but to be enforced gradually rather than jumping directly to formulating an international agreement. An agreement was reached at the second preparatory meeting of the UNCED held in March 1991 to consider formation of a worldwide consensus including at least a declaration on the basic principles without a legally binding force. Work is under way toward its materialization.
1-3. Japanese Contribution in Coping with Global Environmental Problems
Japan has been promoting international cooperation in the environmental field to offer appropriate assistance to efforts made by the developing countries in tackling global environmental problems. In particular, Japan has been active in encouraging self-help efforts of the developing countries and promoting conservation of and research on forests, mainly tropical forests, based on the concept of ensuring "sustainable development." At the Arche Summit of 1989, Japan announced a plan to increase environment-related bilateral and multilateral assistance up to \300 billion in the ensuing three years (fiscal 1989-91 ). The goal was almost attained in a 2-year period (Note). At the London Summit of 1991, Japan announced to expand its environment-related assistance by strengthening cooperation, making use of its experiences as an industrialized country, embarking on joint efforts with the developing countries and offering cooperation in line with the stage of economic development in these countries.
Cooperation through international institutions is equally important in promoting international cooperation in the field of environment. Japan has been making positive contributions to the preservation of the global environment through support to the UNEP, ITTO, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other international organizations involved in dealing with environmental problems. For example, Japan pledged to voluntarily contribute $9.6 million to ITTO during fiscal 1991, the largest amount among all member countries. Moreover, at the 16th UNEP board meeting in May 1991, a plan which Japan had long proposed to establish "The UNEP Center for Global Environment Technology" (in the city of Osaka and in Shiga Prefecture) was adopted. Japan has furthermore contributed to the Global Environment Facility (formally established in May 1991) which is a fund managed by the World Bank, UNEP and UNDP.
Japan has been active in coping with the global environment issue not only by offering financial and technical assistance, but also by supporting the convening of international conferences. Japan will host a conference of the Washington Convention (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife) in Kyoto in March 1992, and another meeting of parties to the Ramsar Convention (the Convention on Internationally Important Marshland as Habitats of Water Birds) in 1993 in Kushiro. Japan's hosting of such conferences is expected to demonstrate the country's positive attitude toward environmental problems to other countries. Efforts to bring success to these conferences will greatly contribute to advancing the international mutual understanding and cooperation to these problems.
2-1. Current Situation
The drug problem is one of the most serious problems facing mankind. Individual efforts by producing, consuming or transit countries alone are insufficient to bring any solution to the problem. Rather, concerted efforts by all the countries involved and the international community as a whole are indispensable.
Major producing centers are spread throughout the world. The "Golden Triangle" stretching over Thailand, Myanmar and Laos, and the "Golden Crescent" over Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran are two major producing centers of heroin, which is then smuggled mainly into the United States and Europe. Similarly, cocaine is produced in large quantities in the Andean countries of Peru, Bolivia and Colombia and other Central and South American countries and also smuggled mainly into the United States and Europe. Recently, the inflow of cocaine into Japan is also sharply increasing. Marijuana is one of the most widely abused drugs and is produced all over the world.
Efforts made by the countries concerned to curtail production in the above areas are yet to bring about any visible results. Drug abuse, on the other hand, is assuming an increasingly serious and complex magnitude in the producing and transit countries themselves.
2-2. International Cooperation
Countries have been dealing with the international drug problem through the United Nations. At the Special Session of the U.N. General Assembly held in February 1990, the decade between 1991 and 2000 has been proclaimed the "United Nations Decade against Drug Abuse." Convinced that these years are the last chance to drive drugs away from the Earth, active efforts are under way to exterminate drug abuse worldwide.
In November 1990, the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances entered into force, aiming at enhancing and expanding international cooperation in the prevention and punishment of illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.
This Convention stipulates the punishment of money laundering and overseas criminal acts, confiscation and preservation of proceeds derived from illicit trafficking, mutual assistance on confiscation and preservation and controlled delivery (Note). The purpose of the Convention is thus to promote international cooperation in preventing and punishing illicit trafficking of drugs. Forty-eight countries plus the European Economic Community (EEC) are the parties to the Convention as of September 1991.
In March 1991, the United Nations International Drug Control Program (UNDCP) was established, integrating therein the three U.N. drug-related organizations (the Division of Narcotic Drugs, the Secretariat of the International Narcotics Control Board and the U.N. Fund for Drug Abuse Control), for more comprehensive and effective action against the drug problem.
The drug problem has been a major agenda for discussion at the G-7 Summit meetings since the Bonn Summit in 1985. At the Arche Summit in 1989, a proposal was made on preventive measures against laundering money derived from illicit drug trafficking. The Houston Summit in 1990 discussed measures to prevent diversion of essential chemicals and precursors to manufacture drugs. In the Economic Declaration adopted at the London Summit in July 1991, the Customs Cooperation Council (CCC) was invited to consider measures to prevent illegal transportation of drugs without hindering smooth circulation of persons and goods and special attention was also given to the problem of heroin in the Asian and European regions. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) on money laundering, established pursuant to the agreement in the Arche Summit, made a report including recommendations to prevent financial institutions from being used for money laundering. The report was endorsed at the Houston Summit. The Chemical Action Task Force (CATF) established pursuant to the agreement reached at the Houston Summit made recommendations on adopting an effective international monitoring system to prevent diversion of such chemicals as ephedrine, acetone and acetic anhydride to the manufacture of illicit drugs. At the London Summit, the participants endorsed the recommendations.
An informal consultative mechanism on combating drugs, which was inaugurated in June 1990 from the EC member countries (the Dublin Group), Japan, the United States, Australia, Canada and Sweden, is having regular meetings to deepen mutual understanding on drug-related assistance policies and promote policy coordination.
2-3. Japan's Contribution to the Solution of Drug Problem
Drugs are not illicitly produced in Japan. Supply of illicit drugs in Japan thus is limited to those smuggled from abroad. Therefore, reducing illicit production of drugs in the producing countries have a significant importance to domestic control of drugs. From the viewpoint of contributing to the solution of drug problems, which are serious social problems all over the world, Japan has been active in this area. Japan has put particular stress on the Asia-Pacific region, where two of the world's three major drug-producing areas are located.
In February 1991, Japan invited 45 countries including countries from the Asia-Pacific region and the major donor countries to the U.N. Fund for Drug Abuse Control (UNFDAC) and drug-related international organizations to Tokyo to convene the Meeting of Senior Officials on Drug Abuse in Asia and the Pacific. At the meeting, the Tokyo Declaration was adopted and the proposal by Japan to form a regional center (yet to be named) with the objective of promoting cooperation of neighboring countries in the producing area in measures against drugs won support of the participating countries. Japan is contributing to the coordination of the countries concerned and related organizations, such as the U.N. Drug Control Programme toward the establishment of the center.
The Government of Japan received approval from the Diet to become a party to the U.N. Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances in April 1991, and the legislative action necessary for implementing the Convention in Japan was taken by the Diet in October. It is working to complete the required preparatory measures for implementing the domestic law in order to become a party expeditiously.
Since 1973, Japan has continuously made financial contributions to the UNFDAC which had been conducting financial assistance to drug-related projects and intends to similarly support the activities of the newly created U.N. Drug Control Programme to which UNFDAC has been integrated. In addition, Japan made the first financial contribution in fiscal 1991 to the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission of the Organization of American States (OAS), which plays a central role in measures against drugs in Central and South America.
On the bilateral level, Japan holds seminars on control of narcotic offenses by inviting law enforcement officers responsible for drug control from Asian and Central and South American countries. Japan also sent economic cooperation survey missions to Thailand and Laos in May 1990 and again to Thailand in November 1990. Whenever economic and technical cooperation is considered to be effective, Japan is ready to offer appropriate assistance.
3-1. Overview
International terrorism is not only an inhuman act which would take or endanger lives, but also a serious threat to world peace and democracy. It is thus a transnational problem required to be solved on a global scale. This worldwide recognition has grown in recent years. Many Japanese go to many parts of the world in the so-called "the era of 10 million Japanese travelers abroad." Now that they are exposed to direct or indirect threats, and some of them suffer injury through terrorism, it has become a serious problem to counter for Japan. From the abovementioned viewpoint, Japan takes the position of resolutely opposing any form of terrorism regardless of its motives. In order to prevent international terrorism, Japan has been taking independent measures, as well as actively promoting international cooperation
3-2. Recent Trends in International Terrorism
From 1990 to the first half of 1991, aircraft bombing, which had successively occurred in the previous three years, did not take place. This is an evident result of the close international cooperation in the field of prevention of terrorism through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and other means. On the other hand, terrorism, except aircraft bombing, was seen in various forms in many parts of the world. To give a few examples, there were the assassination of Chairman Mafgoob of the People's Council of Egypt in October 1990 and the murder by a bomb of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi of India in May 1991.
As for notable movements related to terrorism during 1990 and the first half of 1991, first, Iraq repeatedly called for Middle East extreme radical terrorist organizations to take action after its invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. Iraq took a large number of foreigners as hostages and repeatedly called for terrorist attacks on the rights and interests of the Western countries, including the countries which participated in the multinational forces. Although no large-scale and globally organized terrorist incidents occurred in response to this call, many local terrorists took advantage of the Gulf Crisis and many terrorist outbreaks took place. The United States designated Iraq as a state supporter of terrorism, in addition to Cuba, Iran, Syria and Libya.
As the second feature, it can be pointed out that the political changes in the Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe influenced international terrorist groups. Due to these changes, it has become easier to gain cooperation from those countries to prevent terrorism. As a result, the Red Army Faction (RAF) members who had fled to East Germany were arrested, and it was revealed that some Central and Eastern European countries had given safehaven to internationally wanted terrorists.
3-3. International Cooperation against Terrorism
In order to effectively prevent international terrorism, it is essential that the international community counter it through unanimous cooperation. Currently, international cooperation is promoted on multilateral or bilateral levels in many fields, such as arranging the legal framework concerning terrorist crimes, examining and implementing effective measures against terrorism and exchanging information and opinions about terrorism. Japan is actively participating in these endeavors.
In particular, the prevention of aircraft bombing is one of the most urgent matters requiring international cooperation. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) prepared a draft Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the purpose of Detection, which obligates marking plastic explosives often used in aircraft bombings and other terrorist sabotage, easily detectable by putting certain chemical additives to them in the manufacturing process. This Convention was adopted in March 1991.
The Political Declaration of London Summit in July 1991 also referred to the problem of international terrorism. It called for the immediate and unconditional release of all hostages wherever they may be held, condemned all forms of terrorism and reaffirmed its cooperation for ensuring international civil aviation security including the marking of plastic explosives. The unanimous determination of the Summit participating countries to deter and combat terrorism was again expressed.
3-4. International Terrorism and Japan's Position
Japan and many other countries seriously consider international terrorism to be one of the most critical global problems equaling the environmental and drug problems and are devoted to its prevention.
International terrorism is no longer a problem foreign to Japanese nationals. In recent years, with the rapid increase in the number of Japanese people traveling overseas and Japanese companies operating abroad, there is a growing possibility of Japanese citizens becoming victims of international terrorism. Moreover, with the elevation of Japan's international standing and its economic power, Japanese citizens and corporations abroad have become more visible in every aspect. The Japanese have therefore become more likely to be direct targets of international terrorism than before. In fact, some incidents where Japanese were the direct targets have already occurred. In July 1991, three Japanese experts sent by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) were murdered by an anti-government terrorist organization in Peru and in August 1991, two Japanese were kidnapped in Colombia. Although it is slightly different from international terrorism in nature, an incident occurred in April 1991 in Sindh State, Pakistan, where three traveling college students were kidnapped by an armed robbery group.
In the event that Japanese nationals are taken hostage by terrorists who make unlawful demands to the Government of Japan, the Government of Japan will make its utmost efforts to rescue the hostages safely in cooperation with the foreign government which has the primary responsibility. At the same time, the Government will deal with such an event firmly adhering to the principle of making no concessions to terrorists, which is being confirmed repeatedly by the Summit meetings of the G-7 and elsewhere in order to prevent the recurrence of a similar incident and to maintain law and order. The understanding and cooperation of citizens are vital to enable the Government to act in accordance with the above policy.
3-5. Activities of the Japanese Red Army
Since August 1988, there have been no apparent signs that the Japanese Red Army bas been involved in terrorist incidents. However, it still declares to fight against the so-called "imperialism" and the Emperor system, which indicates that it will take action for the release of its jailed members. Besides, due to the recent reform trends in the Soviet Union and the Central and Eastern European countries, and the change in Syria's attitude since the Gulf Crisis, the Japanese Red Army is considered to have strong misgivings. It cannot be denied that it might take drastic action in the future. Therefore, careful attention should continuously be paid to its activities.
The world population which reached 5 billion in July 1987, is at present 5.4 billion, and is expected to reach 6.4 billion by the end of this century, and 8.5 billion by the year 2025 (U.N. medium variant). Most of the increase takes place in the developing countries and in a large number of these countries, the population increase is a major impediment to economic and social development, with such problems as food shortage, rising unemployment and urban slums due to population migration. Moreover, in recent years, the correlation of such a population increase with the environmental problems such as desertification and global warming is also attracting attention. On the other hand, the industrialized countries, including Japan, are facing a new type of population problem, including aging and mass migration from developing countries.
Serious debate on the population problem started in the 1950s, and attempts were made to deal with the problem at the World Population Conference in Romania in 1974 and the International Conference on Population in Mexico City in 1984. Thereafter, in November 1989, the "International Forum on the Population in the 21st Century" was held in Amsterdam with 79 participating countries. The forum identified that by the year 2000, a total of $9 billion would be required annually to fund population and family planning. Thus, efforts are being made to check the rise in population through not only domestic measures in the developing countries, but also through strengthening international undertakings. The population problem is closely related to economic policies, religion and human rights of the respective countries and its solution is not simple. It is vital to continue unpretentious activities, such as dissemination of family planning, information and educational activities, improvement in the status of women and upgrading health care for mothers and children.
Japan, as a country which has much experience dealing with its postwar population increase within the process of economic development, has been actively cooperating in the field of population mainly through the United Nations. In fiscal 1990 it contributed $55.78 million to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), out of which $14.95 million was contributed to the International Parenthood Planning Federation (IPPF) (Japan's contribution to both of the above ranks the largest in the world). Moreover, Japan has extended bilateral technical assistance to Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Turkey, Egypt, Kenya, Colombia and Peru.
5-1. Coping with the Refugee Problem
(1) The World's Refugee Problem
It is said that at present there are more than 17 million refugees in Afghanistan, Palestine, Indochina, Africa, Central America and elsewhere in the world. The refugees, who came about as a result of conflicts and civil wars that broke out around the world, are increasing in number despite moves to pursue peace led by the United Nations.
The refugee problem is, above all, a humanitarian issue. Needless to say, extending a helping hand to the refugees, who have escaped fighting or oppression and are deprived of the basic human needs of shelter, food and clothing, is an international obligation.
The refugee problem is also a political one which can adversely affect peace and stability of the region. The neighboring countries, which receive refugee influxes, are often faced with social tension in addition to economic burdens. Moreover, there could be cases where the refugees bring political instability into the neighboring countries. Many of the conflicts which accompany the refugee problem break out in the developing regions and in those cases, the difficulties imposed on the receiving developing countries as a result of the inflow of refugees are even more critical. Assistance to refugees has an important effect of alleviating such difficulties and contributes to the maintenance of peace and stability in regions surrounding conflicts.
The refugee problem should be coped with strengthened and unified efforts by the world and it is imperative that Japan, with its increasing responsibility in the international community, positively face up to the issue. Since conflicts are the main cause of refugees, it is also important to prevent the outbreak of conflicts and it is a natural responsibility to cooperate with the efforts centering on the United Nations toward this goal. Assistance to already existing refugees is no less important than prevention of refugees. In the medium- and long-term, such efforts on the refugee problem will play a vital role in building peace throughout the world.
The Government of Japan sees cooperation to help refugees as part of its "cooperation for peace," and has positively contributed to international efforts toward the solution of the refugee problems in the world. In addition to positively participating in international conferences concerning refugees sponsored by the United Nations, Japan has extended a total of $1.6 billion for refugee assistance between fiscal 1979 and fiscal 1990 ($200 million in fiscal 1990), in the form of financial contribution through international organizations, such as the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the U.N. Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA), the World Food Program (WFP) and the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), as well as in bilateral assistance including food aid.
In January 1991, Professor Sadako Ogata took up the post of the eighth United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees as the first woman to assume the post (for a term of three years). As High Commissioner, she is actively contributing to international efforts to resolve refugee problems around the world. It could be said that the high assessment given by the world to positive Japanese contributions to the refugee problem described above was one of the factors which facilitated Prof. Ogata's appointment to the post.
In strengthening Japanese efforts on the refugee problem, expanding the form of cooperation from financial and material contributions to include contribution using more human resources has become one of the major tasks for Japan. The importance of Japanese contribution through human resources in refugee assistance has been highlighted ever since the Gulf Crisis produced a number of displaced persons from Iraq and Kuwait and the problem of Kurdish refugees. The Government of Japan has tried to answer these needs by taking such measures as dispatching medical teams from the Japan Emergency Relief Teams, as will be mentioned later. In Europe and the United States, there are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) with sufficient experience in emergency relief which have made active contributions by sending their personnel to the field. Although Japan's experience in this field is still limited, it is expected that with its NGOs accumulating more experience, thereby becoming more capable of active participation in humanitarian fields, including refugee assistance, Japan's contribution with its human resources will be increased in the non-governmental sector as well.
It should not be overlooked that strengthening Japan's efforts on the refugee problem will further amplify cooperative relations with industrialized countries, particularly the G-7 Summit members, which share a common value on humanitarian issues.
(2) Assistance to Indochinese Refugees and Displaced Cambodians
Despite the fact that 16 years have passed since Indochinese refugees began fleeing their countries as a result of the collapse of South Vietnam and other Indochinese states in 1975, boat people still continue to flow out of this region. The burdens incurred by the temporary sheltering of boat people in Hong Kong and the ASEAN countries have become a major economic, social and even political problem for these countries. In particular, the number of the so-called "economic refugees" who fled from the country in the hope of seeking a better life has increased recently. There is no consensus yet on how to cope with these "economic refugees." No agreements have been reached between the United States and Vietnam which oppose the forced repatriation of refugees, on the one hand, and some other countries concerned, on the other.
Note : 1991 figures are as of end July.
Japan believes it imperative that it extends support to ease the burden of sheltering the refugees on the ASEAN countries and Hong Kong. In this context, Japan takes part in promoting the comprehensive Plan of Action, which was adopted in the International Conference on Indochinese Refugees in 1989, and has contributed the largest amount to the Plan (a total of $22 million in 1990). Japan has been the world's largest donor to UNHCR's Indochinese refugee programs.
In addition, Japan pledged at the International Conference on the Indochinese Refugees to accept 1,000 Vietnamese refugees for resettlement who were long stayers in the ASEAN countries and Hong Kong during the three-year period ending in June 1992. As of the end of July 1991, 427 refugees of this category have been transferred to Japan and the government will continue its efforts to achieve the above target.
As regards relief for the more than 300,000 displaced Cambodians, Japan, since 1979, has been extending assistance through international organizations, as well as through bilateral channels. In 1990, Japan provided the equivalent of $20 million in financial and food aid to the United Nations Border Relief Operation (UNBRO), the largest amount of all countries. The United Nations, taking into consideration the positive development toward peace in Cambodia, has come up with a repatriation plan for the Cambodian refugees and displaced persons. The Secretary-General appealed in October 1990 for voluntary contribution of $33 million needed for the preoperational phase of the plan. In response to this appeal, Japan contributed approximately $8 million in March 1991. In view of the food shortages in Cambodia, the United Nations appealed for a total of $2.71 million for the relief of internally displaced Cambodians in November 1990. To this appeal also, Japan made an emergency contribution of $1 million in March 1991.
(3) Japan's Contribution during the Gulf Crisis
(a) Assistance to Displaced Persons from Iraq and Kuwait
A large number of displaced persons from Iraq and Kuwait (mainly foreign workers who resided in Iraq and Kuwait) sought refuge in the neighboring countries, such as Jordan, as a result of the Gulf Crisis. From a humanitarian point of view, Japan decided to render utmost cooperation to assist these displaced persons. To this end, Japan responded to requests from international organizations, such as the Office of the U.N. Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO), the International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM), and provided a total of $60 million, the largest financial contribution by January 1991. This fund was used to support activities of UNICEF, the World Food Program (WFP), the World Health Organization (WHO), the IOM and the U.N. Volunteers Program (UNV). In addition, from September 1990 to March 1991, Japan provided a total of $160 million worth of relief materials (blankets, canned fish, hard biscuits, powdered milk, drinking water, medicine, tents, tableware, oil heaters, etc.) in several shipments through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to Jordan and Iran which received a number of these displaced persons.
Furthermore, Japan decided to cooperate in the transport area in addition to financial contribution. Responding to the request made by the IOM, with the cooperation from Japanese private airline companies, Japan helped repatriate 807 Filipinos who were sheltered in Jordan in September and October 1990. Also, in January and February 1991, Japan helped bring home 1,046 displaced persons (963 Vietnamese and 83 Thais) who had been transferred from Jordan to Egypt by the IOM.
(b) Assistance to Kurdish Refugees
In late March 1991, a large number of Kurds fled repression by the Iraqi army and took refuge in Turkey and the Turkish border area as well as in Iran. Their extreme hardships led to a mounting international call for assistance. Japan has been providing assistance from the standpoint of extending maximum assistance not only financially but also in material and human resources. First, responding to requests from the relevant international organizations, Japan provided $100 million in financial aid in April. This money is being used to cover the costs incurred by refugee relief activities of the UNHCR, UNDRO, UNICEF, WFP, WHO, IOM, UNV and of Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, who is the Personal Representative of the U.N. Secretary-General for Humanitarian Assistance and U.N. Guards. As for human resource contribution, Japan dispatched the Japan Disaster Relief Teams to Azerbaijan Province in Iran (five teams with a combined staff of 51) between early April and mid-June through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). In addition, an eight-member medical team from the Teams was dispatched in May to Yermark, Turkey. These teams provided medical assistance to Kurdish refugees in collaboration with the local authorities and the UNHCR. As regards assistance in kind, between early April and early June, the Japanese Government transported 440 tons of emergency goods (blankets, biscuits, hard biscuits, powdered milk, drinking water, medicine, clothing) worth $630 million for Kurdish refugees by chartering 10 flights (3 flights to Turkey and 7 flights to Iran). These relief items were donated by the central and local governments and the private sector in Japan.
Japanese financial contribution to international organizations assisting the displaced persons from Iraq and Kuwait, as well as Kurdish refugees, has been lauded by relevant circles not only for its magnitude, but also for its speedy disbursement.
(c) Assistance to the Palestine Refugees
As regards the Palestine refugees, Japan has been extending large cash contributions and food assistance through the UNRWA every year. In addition to these contributions, in March 1991, Japan made an emergency contribution of approximately $10 million to UNRWA's emergency food distribution program, which aims at alleviating malnutrition among Palestinians whose food situation had been adversely affected by the Gulf Crisis.
(4) Assistance to African Refugees
In Africa, as a result of domestic conflicts in Ethiopia and elsewhere, an increase in refugees in various countries of the Horn of Africa including Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan and Kenya, has become a major problem. In March 1991, in response to UNHCR's emergency appeal for contribution to assist refugees in Ethiopia, Japan contributed approximately $8.12 million prior to all other countries.
In the Western Sahara, prior to the referendum by residents to determine the status of the region which is scheduled for early 1992, a plan to repatriate the residents of the Western Sahara by the UNHCR will be effected. In June 1991, Japan announced a contribution of $3.85 million for this plan.
In South Africa also, a repatriation plan for exiled South Africans is scheduled to be implemented soon. Japan announced a contribution of $3.2 million for this plan.
5-2. Disaster Relief Assistance
When major disasters occur in the developing world, cooperation transcending national borders becomes necessary. From humanitarian considerations, Japan has cooperated in various fields, in addition to disaster grant aid, including medical assistance.
The first step toward making such efforts was the organization of the Japan Medical Teams for Disaster Relief in 1982. However, the experience of providing disaster aid in 1985 in the wake of the Mexican earthquake and the volcanic eruption in Colombia, led to the recognition of the need to comprehensively improve an aid system that was limited to medical assistance to encompass rescue functions as well. Thus, in September 1987, the law concerning the dispatch of the Japan Disaster Relief Teams was enacted.
By a decree of the Foreign Minister, the Disaster Relief Teams are dispatched by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in response to the request from the affected country, with the duties of rescue operation, medical care and disaster relief or reconstruction.
The International Rescue Teams consist of relief teams, medical teams and expert teams.
The relief teams, whose task is to save human lives, consist of rescue personnel from the Fire Defense Agency (of municipal governments) and the Police Agency (metropolitan, prefectural) in addition to the Maritime Safety Agency. As of the end of July 1991, a total of 1,511 officers from 40 municipal fire headquarters and nine prefectural police offices, as well as members of the Special Relief Teams of the Maritime Agency, are registered in the Disaster Relief Teams member list. Rescue teams are selected from the registered officers according to the nature of disaster and dispatched with the necessary supplies and equipment. Since extreme urgency is required, the Government has established a system which enables the relief teams to be dispatched as expeditiously as possible.
The medical teams consist of civil servants, local government officials and physicians, nurses and coordinators from the private sector. As of the end of July 1991, a total of 396 individuals were registered with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The members of the medical teams are recruited from this list. Their activities will include various kinds of examination, supplementary treatment and other forms such as sterilization of drinking water, damaged houses and shelters to prevent or control the spread of contagious diseases.
The expert teams consist of technical experts, such as officials of the relevant Government Ministries and Agencies. The teams perform two functions: (a) prevention of the spread and recurrence of the disaster particularly in the wake of the initial occurrence or when the danger of recurrence is imminent; and (b) the restoration of damaged facilities.
In addition to dispatching the Japan Disaster Relief Teams as part of the emergency aid system, reserve depots have been built both in Japan and abroad in order to expedite the provision of emergency supplies. One is in Narita, and the others are in Singapore, Mexico, Italy and the United States. These depots store equipment and supplies which are necessary for disaster relief and are difficult to immediately procure in large quantities (blankets, tents, water-purifiers, power-generators, tool kits, polyethylene tanks) so that they may be sent to the sites of the disaster at short notice.
The Government is conducting rescue and language training to team members for overseas relief activity to overcome various difficulties due to differences in languages and customs.
The wide range of the Japan Disaster Relief Teams' activities forms an important means of Japan's humanitarian cooperation. For example, in April 1991, an oil recovery expert team was dispatched to Saudi Arabia, in an attempt to deal with outflows of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, and five medical teams to Iran and one medical team to Turkey were sent to assist refugees and displaced persons, mainly the Kurdish, who fled their homeland in masses after April 1991. A relief team was also dispatched to Bangladesh in May 1991 in the wake of a cyclone disaster. The team engaged in relief operations, using two helicopters transported from Japan, in coordination with teams from other countries, including that of the U.S. forces.
It is necessary to further enhance the Japan Disaster Relief Teams system. Since past activities have made it clear that improving means of transportation and telecommunication is a new task to be fulfilled, the use of the National Defense Agency is now under consideration as a means to undertake still further effective emergency relief activity.
6-1. Overview
With the Cold War coming to an end, the international community is now working toward a new international order based on dialogue and cooperation. Amid this situation, ethnic problems have surfaced in many places of the world. Following the independence of the three Baltic states from the Soviet Union, some of the other Soviet Republics demanded their national independence. Ethnic clashes have taken place in the Republics of Central Asia. There came out the problems of the Kurds and the Shiites in Iraq after the Gulf Crisis. In Yugoslavia, military conflicts have arisen from the demand for independence by Slovenia and Croatia. In many instances these ethnic problems lead to fights and incidents shedding blood accompanying military involvement and there is a potential danger that these problems can expand into regional disputes through the intervention of neighboring countries. Thus ethnic problems are drawing renewed attention of the international community as one of the destabilizing factors of the post-Cold War era.
To be sure, such conflicts and struggles between different ethnic groups are not a new problem that has occurred only today. A group of people who share the sense of belonging based on a common language, religion and cultural tradition differentiates itself from others and tends to try to subordinate other groups from a sense of superiority. Either oppressed or attacked by others, they unite to fight back. Such struggles among different ethnic groups have long existed all over the world. Many of the contemporary ethnic problems seen throughout the world have been formed through this long history of ethnic struggles. Thus, the feature of contemporary ethnic problems is that each differs from the others showing no universality. Consequently, it is difficult to find a common path toward the solution of these problems.
However, on the other hand, a certain common feature can be seen in the way the ethnic problems broke out in the Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe. These countries are similar in that demands for the restoration of rights and for autonomy by ethnic minorities, who had been suppressed by the strong monolithic rules of the Communist Party, by the centrally-planned economy and by the presence of powerful security agencies, have surfaced along with progress made in political democratization and economic liberalization. In other regions, also, cases can be seen in the emergence of demands for the restoration of rights and autonomy by ethnic minorities, who had been suppressed by traditional domestic systems such as the one-party rule system, under the influence of such factors as changes in the Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe, changes in East-West relations, the construction of an international order based on dialogue and cooperation and the worldwide progress in democratization.
Furthermore, there is an aspect of simultaneous occurrences of similar problems in many parts of the world due to the information disseminated through television. It should be regarded that the various aspects of today's ethnic problems in the world contain contemporary significance.
It is ironic that progress in democratization and liberalization or launching reforms in this direction brings about ethnic problems accompanied by domestic instability. But, as long as the parties concerned have the will to solve the problem through rational talks, it is possible to avoid the occurrence of armed hostilities, incidents with bloodshed and tragedies. In fact, many countries have implemented reforms through talks without instigating ethnic problems. That affairs of bloodshed tend to occur frequently can be ascribed to the emotional elements such as historically rooted mistrusts and passions for national autonomy in addition to various elements unique to individual cases, such as interventions by the military to protect the stability of the existing system.
Facing these problems, the international community today is working seriously for the construction of an international order based on dialogue and cooperation. There is no final and effective means to solve the problems except the case in which an agreement can be reached under an international framework and the relevant parties comply with international mediations or conciliation. Within these constraints, the most effective actual and procedural means to prevent the occurrences or to bring under control armed hostilities which can undermine regional stability is to construct a mechanism of solving problems through rational talks among the parties involved. Such talks must be based on a universal framework that repudiates violence and allows the introduction of democracy, respect for basic human rights, correction of economic disparity between ethnic groups, the removal of mistrust among the parties concerned, as well as respect for other parties' stances. Meanwhile, the international community has a major role to work toward this direction through the framework of the United Nations or regional cooperation and through the mobilization of international public opinion. Thus, since each of the ethnic problems is extremely complicated and differ from one another, it is impossible to generalize them. It is necessary to pay close attention to ethnic problems to contemplate the future trend of the international community and the following is an overview of some of these problems.
6-2. Major Ethnic Problems in the World
(1) Ethnic Problems in the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union is a multinational country where more than 120 ethnic groups live. As a result of the Gorbachev Administration's policy of perestroika and glasnost, moves for autonomy and the preservation of ethnic rights have become increasingly apparent. Confrontation and clashes among different ethnic groups and demands for independence occurred in the three Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia) as well as in the Republics of Georgia and Armenia. In 1991, the situation in the Soviet Union has become more intense and incidents with bloodsheds occurred in Lithuania and Latvia in January because of military intervention. Other Republics also faced a situation that could have caused incidents with bloodshed because of various confrontations and tensions which had surfaced. Thereafter, with the failed coup d'etat, the independence of the three Baltic states was approved in September 1991 amid the transformation of the Soviet Union's federalism. As of the end of September 1991, all the Republics of the Soviet Union have declared either their sovereignty or independence, and 17 of 21 autonomous Republics have declared their sovereignty. About half of the autonomous oblast (regions) and okrug (areas) have also declared their sovereignty or announced the upgrading of their territories into the status of autonomous Republics.
The Soviet ethnic problems can be seen from two aspects: the confrontation between the Russians and non-Russians and the confrontation among diverse non-Russian ethnic groups.
Source : The 1989 census of the Soviet Union.
On the former, from the viewpoint of non-Russians, the federal system itself appears to have a strong element of Russian domination over other ethnic groups. Because of this, many Republics of different ethnic groups have made movements for independence and separation from the Soviet Union or demanded preservation of autonomy as sovereign Republics under perestroika and glasnost. On the other hand, it is also pointed out that these moves have heightened the ethnic consciousness of the Russians who compose about half of the total population of the Soviet Union.
At present, the dissolution of the Communist Party was declared and separatist ethnic movement of the non-Russians is mounting. Moreover, Islamic ethnic groups have been increasing their population because of extremely high birth rates, and it is said that in the near future, the Russian population will surely drop to less than half of the total in the Soviet Union. Amid such a situation, it is worth noting what kind of impact the Great Russian nationalism gives over the direction of the Soviet Union in the future. It is also worth noting what kind of role the Russian Republic plays in the new relationships among the various Republics.
Confrontations among the non-Russian ethnic groups stem from a variety of complicated factors.
As for the reasons behind the confrontations and hostilities, first of all, one can point out the existence of mistrust and ill-feelings that have developed against the background and of historical sequences. For instance, the confrontation between the Azerbaijanis and the Armenians centering on the problem of the Nagorno-Karabakh autonomous oblast reflects the historical confrontation between the Armenian and Turkish peoples (Note) over territories including major massacres which took place between them in 1905 and 1918.
Secondly, the confrontations are related to religious differences. Regarding the problem in the Nagorno-Karabakh autonomous oblast, the Azerbaijanis are Moslems, and the Armenians are Christians. As for the problem of the Abkhaz Autonomous Republic in Georgia, the Georgian people (Christians) and Abkhaz people (Moslems) conflict with each other largely because of the differences in their religions.
Thirdly, such confrontations sometimes stem from the economic gap between different ethnic groups or the infringement of economic and social interests by other ethnic groups. The clashes between the Uzbeks and the Meskhetia Turks took place in 1989 although both peoples are Moslems. Many other clashes took place against the background of economic interests.
Fourthly, some factors are attributed to the ethnic policy of the Soviet Union in the past. The Volga Germans, the Crimean Tatars and Meskhetia Turks who were forced to relocate under the ethnic policy of General Secretary Joseph Stalin, as well as the Ocetians who were divided into the northern and southern autonomous Republic and oblast are now demanding to return to their homelands or asking for an expansion of their autonomy or integration. In February 1991, the Supreme Soviet of the Ukraine declared the restoration of the Crimean Autonomous Republic, and the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Republic has also been seen to restore the Volga Autonomous Republic.
Ethnic Composition of Republics in the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union originally did not use the specific name of ethnic groups or lands in the state naming but rather attempted to integrate various ethnic groups under the state system centering around the "Soviets," which can be regarded as a grand experiment. However, the current situation shows that the attempt at integration was not successful even under the firm one-party rule and the centrally-controlled suppressive regime. Needless to say, the directions of relations among the republics reflecting ethnic problems will have a major impact on international relations amid the construction of a new international order in the post-Cold War era.
(2) Ethnic Problems in Europe
The countries in Central and Eastern Europe have been dealing with various reforms, including the introduction of a market economy that started with democratic movements in 1989. In this process, the ethnic problems which had long been suppressed by the one-party control system have surfaced and cast a shadow on the future of the countries pursuing reforms. Historically, Central and Eastern Europe have existed with diverse ethnic groups, and friction among them have been ceaseless. But after World War II, the ethnic problems have been superficially solved under the influence of the Soviet Union and the one-party control system. All the more, as the Central and Eastern European countries have distanced themselves from the Soviet Union and freed themselves of one-party control, some of these countries found themselves facing ethnic problems again amid the economic difficulties they also faced. A country like Yugoslavia could find it difficult to sustain its federalism, not to speak of the possible failure of reforms, depending on how the current situation develops.
It was essentially difficult for Yugoslavia to integrate as a nation because of its multinational features of different ethnic groups, religions, languages and letters, although the country had barely maintained its integration due to the charisma of President Tito and the Soviet influence after World War II. However, with the end of the Cold War between East and West, the decline of the Soviet influence and democratic moves in Central and Eastern Europe, there surfaced discord and friction among Yugoslav Republics which had long been latent.
Source : The 1981 census of Yugoslavia.
Source : The 1981 census of Yugoslavia.
Serbia, the largest Republic in Yugoslavia, has been insisting on the maintenance of the federal system. On the other hand, the nationalistic governments in both Croatia and Slovenia took specific moves toward independence or the reorganized union as confederation partly due to their economic discontent under the existing federation. They intensified their confrontation with the federal government and Serbia, and the situation became so grave as to witness a clash with the Yugoslav People's Army. Macedonia also has strengthened its intentions for independence, and such a move could spread to other republics so that Yugoslavia is on the verge of collapse. European countries regard this situation as a serious challenge to the maintenance of European peace recognized in the Paris Charter in the Autumn of 1990. Following the serious efforts at mediation by the European Community (EC), the member countries of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), made similar efforts through its consultation mechanism with regard to emergency situations, which was set up in 1991. But the situation has not yet improved.
Czechoslovakia has maintained domestic stability, unlike Yugoslavia. These are movements, however, of Slovak demanding equality with Czech and the establishment of autonomy, and furthermore, independence. On the other hand, such a move by Slovakia stimulates the nationalism of the Hungarian people in Slovakia.
In the Transylvania region of Romania, the discord between the Hungarian and Romanian residents that took place during the Ceausescu era continues. This has cast a delicate shadow over the relationship between Romania and Hungary.
In Bulgaria, the problem of the treatment of Turkish residents has not been completely solved. Regarding the Macedonian problem, there is still a potential conflict among Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria, which is a historical conflict dating back to the waning days of the Ottoman Empire. How this potential conflict develops needs to be watched in the light of the current situation in Yugoslavia.
While the West European countries have entered into the process of overcoming national borders and promoting integration, the Central and Eastern European countries appear to be intensifying their moves in the opposite direction. Europe may face new difficulties in cases where many refugees from the Soviet Union and Central/Eastern Europe flee to Western Europe, if the economic difficulties of the Central and Eastern European countries are not solved, and if their regions become destabilized due to further entanglement of ethnic problems.
In Cyprus, located at the southern end of Europe, the hostility between Greek and Turkish people still persists. Talks between Greece and Turkey continue at the United Nations under the mediation of the U.N. Secretary-General toward a peaceful solution of the conflict.
Western Europe has been a model for the relationship between a state and a nation in terms of forming nation states and establishing an international regime among these states, particularly through the 19th century since the French revolution. Needless to say, the formation of Western Europe reflects a long history of reccurring conflicts and struggles among different ethnic groups. It is also the result of large-scale movements of ethnic groups from one place to another and of one ethnic group dominating another and resistance against such domination. Abovementioned conflicts among ethnic groups, which sometimes lead to the demand for changing borders with the use of force, have often been one of the destabilizing factors in Europe.
The present Western Europe is not in a situation that such a shadow of history brings about large-scale clashes among ethnic groups. But in addition to the demands made in the Catalonia and Basque regions of Spain, the Irish Republic Army (IRA) in Northern Ireland has been carrying out anti-British struggles rooted in the religious conflict between the majority Protestant and the minority Catholic. On the French island of Corsica, the Nationalist Front of the Liberation of the Corse (FLNC) made bombing attacks. Thus, the violent resistance of minority groups has not been eliminated completely.
(3) Ethnic Problems in Asia
In Asia, also, there are many countries where potential conflicts among ethnic groups exist, because of religious elements and various historical factors, such as colonial borders, ethnic conflicts and ethnic migrations since ancient times.
As for South Asia, in Jammu and Kashmir, India's northernmost states, a major problem is the separatist movement led by Islamic activists, which is complicated by a territorial question of Kashmir with Pakistan. Moreover, in Punjab, Sikh radicals carry out terrorist activities and there are conflicts between Hindus and Moslems over the issue of construction of a temple in Ayodhya, a holy place of Hinduism. Against the background of the diversity in religions, languages and ethnic groups, destabilizing factors surface from time to time in South Asia.
In Pakistan, each of the four provinces has a different ethnic majority group: The Punjabis, the Pathans, the Baluchis and the Sindhis. The Punjabis are the largest group in number and the major force to buttress the national government. The rivalry that other ethnic groups have with the Punjabis can be a destabilizing factor in Pakistan, which was united under Islam. Moreover in the Sindh Province, the confrontation between the native Sindhis, the Muhajirs who immigrated there from India around the time of independence, and the Pathans and the Punjabis who flowed in from neighboring states, coupled with the activity of the bandits (dacoits) in the region, has caused a civil security problem.
In Sri Lanka, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), the extreme faction of the minority Tamils, which seeks an independent homeland in the North and East is at war with the government forces, continuing guerrilla activities. In May 1991, former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, and the suspicion is growing that the LTTE was responsible. It is expected that the international criticism against the LTTE will increase. Under these circumstances, while the possibility of political negotiations are not excluded, depending on the developments in the armed conflicts in the North and East, many problems have to be solved before reaching a fundamental solution. While India takes a position of non-intervention after withdrawing its troops from Sri Lanka in March 1990, there are over 50 million Tamils in India which is greatly interested in the Tamil problem in Sri Lanka. Moves made by India is a factor that may have a significant impact on the Sri Lanka ethnic problem.
In Myanmar, where the Burmese people are the majority tribe, the minority ethnic problems, such as of the Karens and Kachins, have not been solved. These problems, while not large enough to threaten the existence of the central government, are still the same difficult problems that cannot be solved overnight.
In addition, most of the Southeast Asian countries have faced, in their own history, ethnic issues of varying degrees.
For China, the Dalai Lama, the exile supreme religious leader of Tibetans, has long been demanding in absence from China enlarged autonomy of Tibet. Within China there are moves by Tibetans, who respond to this demand. China often counters the anti-Chinese criticism made by some Westerners concerned with human rights issues in Tibet. Moreover, some of Islamic tribes make anti-Han nationalism movements in the Xinjiang-Uighur region.
(4) Ethnic Problems in the Middle East
The Middle East has historically seen ups and downs of various states and ethnic groups. From a religious point of view, this region is the birthplace of the three major monotheistic religions; namely, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Due to such a complicated historical background, this region still has various ethnic and religious groups. Moreover, since most of the territorial borders in the Middle East were artificially drawn as a result of the colonial rule of the Great Powers, a considerable number of minority groups exists within almost every country in the region.
The minority ethnic groups include: the Kurds spreading over Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria; the Armenians and the Turkmen in the Arab countries; and the Azerbaijanis and the Assyrians in Iran. Religious minorities include the Christians in the Arab countries, the Druze and the Islamic Shiites.
The national identities of the countries in the Middle East are still in the process of forming a shape due to considerably short national history after their independence in the post-World War II era. Besides, in general, the ethnic groups in the region traditionally have a strong sense of tribal identity. Therefore, the presence of such minority ethnic groups has a potential to destabilize each country in the region. Not a few minority ethnic groups have revolted in pursuit of autonomy or independence. On the other hand, there are cases that a demographical minority group strongly affects the decision making of the central government.
In the Middle East, there is a great number of conflicts connected with ethnic and religious frictions. Major conflicts still continuing today among them are that between Israel and the Arab countries, the most significant issue in the Middle East, and the domestic conflicts in Lebanon and Sudan.
Although the cause of the conflict between the Arabs and Israelis consists of various factors, this conflict can be interpreted as the result of antagonism between nationalism of the Arabs and Jews. There had been some movements of Jews to return to their ancestor's land from the Diaspora in small-scale before Herzl advocated Zionism in the 19th century. The number of Jewish immigrants increased gradually after World War I, and with Hitler's persecution of Jews in the 1930s, Zionism gained momentum and a large number of Jews migrated to Palestine, which resulted in bringing Jews and the Arabs increasing hostility between them. Moreover, as a result of the repeated wars between Israel and the Arab countries, a large number of Palestinians were forced to become refugees.
The friction between Moslems and Christians underlies the civil war in Lebanon that has persisted since 1975. More specifically, Christians became the majority force in the parliament pursuant to the population census carried out in 1932 under the French mandate. Later on, however, Moslems took the majority in population and began seeking power suitable to this reality. It can be seen that the temporary increase of the Palestinian force partly complicated the civil war in Lebanon.
In Sudan a civil war has intensified since the Sudanese People's Liberation Army was formed in 1983. This can also be seen as reflecting the frustration of Christians in the South against the introduction of the law of Islam by the government.
Foreign workers in the Persian Gulf countries have come to have a considerable proportion in the total population of those countries, accounting for more than half of the population in some of them. Although they do not fit into the conventional concept of minority groups, the presence of these foreign workers could become a new social issue in the future.
(5) Ethnic Problems in Africa
Most of the national borders of Africa were artificially drawn during the colonial period, and many of the African countries find it difficult to form and integrate nation states. Due to historical and cultural differences as well as conflicts among tribes, there are many movements seeking independence from the existing countries. The Biafran war in Nigeria - the Ibo tribe's demand for an independent state of "Biafra" - is an example of such a move culminating in a civil war. Ethiopia, where a civil war continued until recently, is another case.
In Ethiopia, the Eritrean Liberation Front started armed struggles in 1961 and since then, various anti-government forces resorted to armed struggles on such issues as the separation and independence of Eritrea, the establishment of an autonomous state in Tygre and the overthrow of the Mengistu Government. The civil war ended in May 1991 with the collapse of the Mengistu Government against the background of intensified attacks by the antigovernment forces. The anti-Mengistu forces gathered to establish a transitional government after the civil war had ended, and are now aiming to build a democratic regime. In Eritrea, the Eritrean Liberation Front, which in effect controls the state, formed a provisional government and seeks independence from Ethiopia through a referendum.
In Somalia, various anti-government forces carried out guerrilla activities aiming at the overthrow of the Barre Government. The United Somalia Council (USC), one of the anti-government groups, attacked the capital and the Barre government collapsed in January 1991. But, there exist some differences among various groups, and in May, the Somali National Movement (SNM) (primarily of the Ishak tribe), which controls the north of the country, unilaterally declared the independence of the ex-British colonial area, showing a state of an age of rival warlords.
In Liberia, a civil war occurred in December 1989, partly due to the hatred among different tribes resulting in massacres of tribes. President Samuel Doe (the Krahn Tribe) was killed by one of the anti-government forces (primarily from the Gio tribe and the Mano tribe) in September 1990. A cease-fire was realized mainly due to interventions by peace-keeping forces of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) at the end of 1990. However, Liberia is still divided by some forces and the situation is in flux.
Rwanda, whose Government is dominated by the Hutu tribe, experienced a civil war in October 1990 as well, after it was invaded by an armed group of the Tutsi Tribe from outside of the country. But most areas of Rwanda have become stable except its northern border area where skirmishes continue.
(6) Ethnic Problems in North and South America
U.S. society, which is sometimes called "a melting pot" consists of various ethnic groups which include the people of European ancestry, African ancestry, Asian-Pacific ancestry (e.g. Chinese, Filipino, Japanese-American), or Hispanic-American (e.g. people of Mexican or Puerto Rican origin). Problems arising from the multi-ethnicity of the United States are different in character from the ethnic problems in other parts of the world as most of the American people are immigrants or their descendants. The United States has been making continuous efforts throughout its history to build a society free from discrimination, exemplified in a series of civil rights legislations.
Canada has a historical problem, where conflicts and cooperation co-exist between the British Canadians and the French Canadians living in Quebec. Separatist movements have become especially strong since the 1960s and a provincial referendum was held in Quebec in 1980 on the question of independence, but the majority voted against separation. Moreover, in 1987, the Prime Ministers of the federal and provincial governments agreed on the draft amendment of a Constitution (Meech Lake Accord) that accepts the special status of Quebec. The draft was sent to provincial assemblies for ratification, but two provinces opposed the amendment, and the amendment of the bill failed in June 1990. Since then, a conflict of opinions over the Quebec issue has remained and become a serious domestic problem.
In the Latin America and Caribbean area, the co-existence of various ethnic groups represents the characteristics of this region. Originally, there were the Indians. Following the encounter with the new continent by Christopher Columbus, Spain and Portugal conquered and colonized the Latin America and Caribbean area. Later on, Europeans, Africans and Asians came; and slaves as a labor force were introduced from the African continent. After the slave trading was abolished, labor forces came from various parts of Asia including India, China and Indonesia, with the Japanese starting to migrate there in the Meiji era. Experiencing such a history together with blood mixture that took place over a long time span, the racial composition of the region has become very complicated. Therefore, it has been historically a major task for Latin American countries to overcome conflicts among different ethnic and immigrant groups so as to push integration and reconciliation of society and country.
At present, basically, the Latin America and Caribbean area is in no serious situation that brings about clashes among different ethnic groups. Nonetheless, it does not mean that there is no problem based on differences of ethnic groups in this area. To a varying degree in each country, there exist social problems such as the gap in social status and in living standards and social confrontations against ethnic differences. So, to many Latin American and Caribbean countries, the integration and reconciliation of domestic ethnic groups have come to be one of their objectives.
(7) Ethnic Problems in the Pacific Region
Australia, in large part, consists of immigrants and descendants of immigrants, and the country once took a strict immigration policy. After World War II, however, it accepted immigrants from various parts of the world and a rapid increase of Asian immigrants has recently been pointed out. Although there exist differences in ethnic consciousness between aborigines and Asian immigrants, on one hand, and Anglo-Saxon and other European Australians forming the majority of the population, on the other, Australia as a member of the Asia-Pacific region is seeking a direction in which integration is pursued with cultural diversities.