Section 17. Promotion of "Frontier Diplomacy"
The appearance of the atomic bomb led to the termination of World War II. In postwar diplomacy, too, atomic weapons played a decisive role within the context of the cold war structure formed by the two pillars of the United States and the Soviet Union.
The astounding progress of science and technology as symbolized by atomic weapons not only became a major factor in influencing international politics but also has become a big problem in modern diplomacy because it is closely related to the life of the people of various countries through the peaceful use of atomic energy, satellite communications, ocean development and other projects. Thus, in addition to military, political and economic affairs which were once the traditional subjects of diplomacy, a new field whose medium is science and technology appeared on the scene as an important subject of diplomacy.
In this new field, which can be called a frontier of diplomacy, a new form of international cooperation is needed in such places as the United Nations. In this modern age when the world has entered the "second industrial revolution" through large-scale technological innovation, efforts are being made, on the one hand, to seek the rapid development of science and technology and, on the other, to restrain the reckless progress of technology through international cooperation. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the debates in the United Nations relating to ocean development, and the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment are nothing more than indications of this effort.
It is expected that this trend will become increasingly stronger in the future. Accordingly, all countries are beginning to show great enthusiasm for promoting "frontier diplomacy" mainly centering around the United Nations. The paragraphs below contain a brief review of the process which brought about this "frontier diplomacy" with the aim for outlining where it stands today and what points are at issue.
1. Frontier diplomacy with respect to atomic energy
It was the development of atomic energy that brought science and technology fully onto the stage as an important aspect of modern diplomacy.
The use of atomic energy which began in the final stages of World War II developed rapidly after the war in the military field centering on the United States and the Soviet Union. As the cold war intensified, it led eventually into an endless competition between the major powers to manufacture nuclear weapons, thus enlarging the danger of a nuclear war. This sense of crisis caused the world to feel the urgent need for nuclear disarmament and resulted in the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water (1963) and the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968).
On the other hand, this same atomic energy can be used for peaceful purpose which serve to improve man's life in many ways such as through its application in isotopes or as an important energy source to take the place of coal and petroleum. The peaceful use of atomic energy progressed steadily after World War II. Especially after the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1956, international cooperation for the peaceful uses of atomic energy made conspicuous progress with the IAEA in center stage. However, because of its Jekyll and Hyde character, atomic energy always embraces within itself the danger of being switched to the manufacture of nuclear weapons. For this reason, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons mentioned earlier strictly prohibits switching to uses other than peaceful purposes, and it stipulates measures to ensure this-the so-called international inspection system. However, one misstep in its operation will result in obstructing a country's peaceful use of atomic energy and could even create inequality. Thus, it must be said that how to promote international cooperation for the peaceful use of atomic energy while achieving the aim of non-proliferation as part of the effort towards disarmament constitutes an important diplomatic problem particularly for Japan.
2. Peaceful uses of outer space and the sea bed and ocean floor
The next problem that appeared on the scene as part of this new "frontier diplomacy" was that of the peaceful uses of outer space and the sea bed and ocean floor.
Development of outer space came into the world limelight as a result of the successful Apollo landing on the moon. In the practical field also, great achievements were made such as in the expansion of the international communications network through the use of man-made satellites. Outer space development, however, involves delicate international technological and legal issues because of the character of the area in question. In 1961, the United Nations set up the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Outside the United Nations as well, international cooperation in this field is being vigorously undertaken through bilateral international cooperation and through multinational cooperation concerning communications satellites.
As for ocean development, it is a field which has come rapidly into public attention in Japan, too, in the form. of challenging the sea bed and ocean floor which is the last frontier on this earth. For Japan which is poor in underground mineral resources, undersea resources such as petroleum, natural gas and manganese nodules are of vital interest. The problem of the peaceful uses of the sea bed and ocean floor as taken up in the United Nations concerns the deep sea bed and ocean floor which lie beyond the continental shelf which is mostly within the jurisdiction of the adjacent coastal country. Because there still does not exist an international law covering the development of the sea bed and ocean floor, if things are left as they are now, there is a fear that the entire sea bed and ocean floor of the earth would eventually be divided up among the technologically advanced nations. Therefore, the United Nations in 1968 set up the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of the Sea Bed and Ocean Floor and is hastening to establish an international regime concerning the development of the sea bed and ocean floor. Development of the sea bed and ocean floor, because of its character, contains many difficult international issues which are no less difficult than those concerning space development. The sea bed problem, furthermore, is related inevitably to the so-called problem of law of the sea involving such matters as territorial waters, fishery in the high seas, and international sea passage. Consequently, for Japan which is vitally interested in all these matters, it can be said that "frontier diplomacy" relating to the use of the sea bed and ocean floor in the future is of major significance.
3. Debut of environmental diplomacy
The newest and most important facet of "frontier diplomacy" on which the world's attention is concentrated at present concerns the moves towards international cooperation relating to the problem of the human environment.
In Japan, too, the problem of the environment has become a matter of very keen concern. The environmental problem, involving as it does the occurrence of pollution not only over a wide area covering several countries, but in some cases of global scale, possesses aspects which require international cooperation. Furthermore, the need for international cooperation of the environmental measures of each country has come to be recognized since they affect the international economy and world trade and the issue has emerged as a new field of international relations. This indicates that there is rapidly growing in each nation an awareness of the necessity for placing emphasis on the qualitative side of economic growth and for measures on an international scale to cope effectively with environmental pollution which is one of the distortions accompanying progress in science and technology in the advanced countries in recent years and the quantitative expansion of industry based on it. Accordingly, the environmental problem is today being discussed on a priority basis in such international organizations as the United Nations and the OECD or bilaterally, such as between Japan and the United States. In these discussions, the subjects being examined include joint international measures for the preservation of the human environment on a global scale, such as an exchange of all types of information and technology, the training of specialists, and the establishment of an environmental monitoring network. In addition to these concrete measures, the possibility of establishing international control standards in order to ensure fair trade competition is being studied.
Particularly in the United Nations, important initiatives with respect to global environmental problems have been taken until now by such specialized agencies as WHO, WMO, FAO, IMCO and UNESCO. With the above situation as the background and for the purpose of solving the environmental problem more effectively, it is planned to hold a "United Nations Conference on the Human Environment" for two weeks from June 5, 1972, at Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. This conference which will have the slogan "Only One Earth" is attracting worldwide attention as the first international conference on the theme of the preservation of the human environment which is the common desire of all mankind. Preparations for the conference have been pushed steadily ahead for the past three years centering around the United Nations. As a leading member of the preparatory committee, Japan, too, has consistently made positive contributions. It can be said that the Stockholm conference, which can be described as the curtain raiser of a new environmental diplomacy, provides for Japan, which is deeply interested and has a rich experience in environmental problems, an invaluable opportunity for active participation.
Together with these moves centered on the United Nations, the OECD Environment Committee has recently begun to attract special attention. This committee was established in 1970 by reorganizing the OECD Committees for Research Cooperation, which had until then been dealing only with the technological aspect of the environmental problem, for the purpose of having it deal with the economic aspects of the environmental problem as well. Its feature lies in the point that it examines the problem from a wide angle, including studies of the international economic effects of the environmental preservation measures taken by the industrially advanced nations. In particular, it has recently been conducting a study of the principle of the polluter paying for the cost of pollution control measures.
At the meeting of the Council of GATT in November, 1971, it was decided to set up the "Group on Environmental Measures and International Trade" in order to study the relationship between GATT regulations and environment preservation measures.
In addition to these, there have been established between Japan and the United States the "U.S.-Japan Ministerial Conference on Environmental Pollution" and the "U.S.-Japan Conference on Natural Resources" which serve as regular forums for studying environmental problems. The former was established for the purpose of promoting close cooperation on such matters as the setting of standards to determine pollution, personnel exchange, exchange of information, and joint planning and conduct of research. The first conference was held in October 1970 and the second in June 1971 in Washington.
As outlined above, Japan is making use of all kinds of forums for international cooperation in order to make efforts to pursue actively an independent environmental diplomacy. In order to cope with the international environment problem which will become increasingly complicated, Japan should conduct a richly imaginative environmental diplomacy by putting to full use its valuable knowledge and experience with the active support of the entire nation.