Section 12. Situation in the Middle East and Africa
1. Middle East
(1) General situation
A state of de facto cease-fire continued after the end of the expiration of the cease-fire period in March 1971, and efforts for peace were made by the parties to the conflict and also by the United States, the Soviet Union and other countries concerned. Amid this situation, there were contradicting moves of "disintegration and integration" in the Arab world revolving around Egypt. The isolation of the Hussein dynasty in the Arab world became conspicuous as a result of the civil war in Jordan in July, an attempted coup d'état in Morocco and a revolution and a counter-revolution in the Sudan. In September, the Federation of Arab Republics was officially started with the United Arab Republic (renamed the Arab Republic of Egypt), Syria and Libya as its constituent members.
(2) Proposal for reopening Suez Canal and Rogers mediation
President Anwar al-Sadat on April 2 informed the four great powers of a six-point Egyptian proposal centering around a reopening of the Suez Canal, which summarized Egypt's policies announced earlier. Since that time, efforts for peace in the Middle East became directed at a partial settlement of the Middle East issue centering around the Sadat proposal, and U.S. efforts to persuade Israel became the focus of mediation.
In this situation, U.S. Secretary of State Rogers visited five Middle East countries including Egypt and Israel from May 1 to 8 and tried to mediate in an effort to achieve a partial settlement. However, there still was a big difference in the claims of Egypt and Israel over, (1) the relationship between the proposed partial settlement and an overall settlement, (2) the size of Israeli forces to be withdrawn and (3) the crossing of the canal by Egyptian troops.
(3) Political change in Egypt and Soviet-Egypt Treaty
While the American mediation effort was under way, President Sadat on May 2 discharged Vice-President Ali Sabri, who had been regarded as the leader of the pro-Russian faction in Egypt. It was followed by the resignation of six left-wing cabinet ministers on May 13. Later, on May 27, Egypt concluded a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union and its posture, which for some time had been regarded as a bit inclined toward the United States, gradually came to show increasing dependence on the Soviet Union.
On July 23, President Sadat showed a tough posture, stating that his country would not let 1971 pass without deciding on the issue of war or peace.
(4) U.N. debate on Middle East and Rogers proposal
On October 4, U.S. Secretary of State Rogers made a six-point proposal at the U.N. General Assembly for a partial settlement of the Middle East issue leading to a reopening of the Suez Canal. The six-points were as follows:
(1) Negotiations for a reopening of the Suez Canal under special U.N. envoy Jarring, which would be the first step toward an overall settlement of the issue.
(2) It was considered possible that understanding could be obtained from both sides on a period of cease-fire.
(3) It would also be possible to arrange withdrawal areas which would allow for the major concerns of both sides.
(4) It is necessary to provide an observation organ to keep watch against violations of an agreement.
(5) It is possible for both sides to compromise on the stationing of Egyptian forces on the east bank of the Suez.
(6) It is possible to reach agreement on non-discriminatory navigation through the Suez Canal.
The United States actively attempted to mediate on the basis of its proposal, However, Egypt did not show positive interest in the U.S. mediation effort because it attached importance to the debate at the U.N. General Assembly and aimed at applying diplomatic pressure on Israel with the support of international public opinion. Moreover, President Sadat paid an official visit to the Soviet Union for three days from October 10, thereby showing Egypt's posture of depending on the Soviet Union.
The U.N. General Assembly adopted on December 13 a resolution sponsored by 22 Asian and African countries which called for the reopening of mediation by special U.N. envoy Jarring and for the acceptance of his proposal. This saved the face of Egypt and the year 1971 passed without seeing a decision made on the issue of war or peace. Meantime, Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir met President Nixon on December 2 and succeeded in obtaining a U.S. promise that it would provide Israel with weapons including Phantom planes.
(5) President Sadat's visit to the Soviet Union
Following his official visit to the Soviet Union in October 1971, President Sadat unofficially visited the Soviet Union again on February 2, 1972. A joint communique issued at the end of his visit to the Soviet Union (February 4) suggested the Soviet Union's passive attitude toward military aid, and it gave the impression that relations between the Soviet Union and Egypt had become slightly less close compared with those existing at the time of his previous visit.
(6) King Hussein's plan for United Arab Kingdom
King Hussein of Jordan announced on March 15 that, as part of an amendment to the Jordanian constitution, the area on the west bank of the Jordan River and the Gaza strip would be made a self-governing state and that a United Arab Kingdom would be created by federalizing it with Jordan after the end of Israeli occupation. Other Arab countries criticized the plan as "an act of treachery" designed to conclude a separate peace with Israel, There is no possibility of Israel accepting the Hussein proposal for the time being.
2. Africa
(1) General situation
The political situation in Africa (south of Sahara) became stabilized temporarily following the end of the civil war in Nigeria in January 1970. However, the political situation in some African countries seemed unstable because of an invasion of Guinea by foreign troops in November 1970, a coup d'état in Uganda in January 1971, several border disputes between Portuguese Guinea and Senegal, the deportation in June of diplomats of socialist countries, including the Soviet Union, from Zaire, a coup d'état in Ghana in January 1972 and riots in Southern Rhodesia. Meantime, various countries concentrated their efforts on national construction, and it can be said that their need for economic and technical cooperation from the advanced countries for their economic development has greatly increased.
In the field of international politics, the relative importance of African countries has increased. Efforts of China and the Soviet Union to increase their influence in this region continued to be active. The U.N. Security Council held a session in Africa from January 28 to February 4, 1972, for the first time in its history. The session was participated in by the People's Republic of China and actively discussed problems of southern Africa. The Democratic Republic of Congo changed its name to the Republic of Zaire on October 27. 1971.
(2) Advance of People's Republic of China and Soviet Union
The advance of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, especially the former, into African countries, which still maintain close relations with their former suzerain powers such as Britain and France, became active during the period. After the Cultural Revolution, the People's Republic of China gradually intensified its diplomacy toward Africa along its flexible policy line based on the five principles for peace. In this connection, a project to build a 1,860-kilometer Tanzam railway linking Tanzania and Zambia is particularly noteworthy. A ceremony to mark the start of the railway construction work was held in Dar-es-Salaam in October 1970 and the work is now in progress. When completed, the railway will be comparable to the Aswan High Dam built with Russian assistance, and its political significance as a symbol of the People's Republic of China's various activities in Africa will not be small. Since the People's Republic of China also provided other African countries with economic and technical assistance and endeavored to promote closer relations with them, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Cameroon, Sierra Leone and Togo have recognized the People's Republic of China in a space of slightly more than three years. At the U.N. General Assembly in 1971, 26 of the 42 African countries (20 out of the 36 countries south of Sahara) supported the Albanian resolution. Ghana restored its diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China on February 29, 1972.
The Soviet Union has promoted its relations with Mauritius, Nigeria and the Congo (Brazzaville). Its active approach to Mauritius as part of its advance into the Indian Ocean, by concluding a fishery cooperation agreement with it (July 1970), attracted the attention of the countries concerned in particular.
(3) Southern African problems
The confrontation over southern Africa remains unabated. The Government of South Africa was severely criticized by the United Nations, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the Non-Allied Conference because of its traditional apartheid policy and insistence on its rule over Southwest Africa. Especially, the United Nations adopted various resolutions calling for sanctions against and recommendations to South Africa. Criticism by various African countries against countries of Europe and America and Japan, which had close trade relations with the southern African region, remained severe. The eighth conference of heads of state of the OAU countries held in June 1971 criticized Japan by name, together with the NATO countries, for allegedly increasing investments in South Africa. (Note: Japan has no investment in South Africa). The conference saw a conflict of opinion between a group of radical members and another group of moderate members over a proposal made by the President of Ivory Coast for a peaceful settlement of the issue through "a dialogue with South Africa." During the conference, the International Court of Justice expressed its advisory opinion that rule of Southwest Africa by South Africa was illegal.
Britain's plan to resume arms sales to South Africa threatened to cause the disintegration of the British Commonwealth at the Conference of Commonwealth Heads of Government held in Singapore in January 1971, which focused its debate on the issue. But the situation was temporarily saved by the creation of an eight-country study group. In a coup d'etat which occurred in Uganda, on January 25, immediately after the conference, President Milton Obote, a vociferous opponent of Britain's arms sales to South Africa, was ousted, causing part of the radical group to collapse. In February, Britain decided on its own judgment to supply seven Wasp helicopters to South Africa in disregard of the study group. The coup d'état in Uganda greatly affected President Julius K. Nyerere of Tanzania and President Kenneth D. Kaunda of Zambia, who were also vociferous opponents of arms sales to South Africa, and it appears that the opposition to arms sales to South Africa subsequently suffered a major setback.
As regards Southern Rhodesia which unilaterally declared itself independent of Britain in 1965 and which has been subjected to total U.N. economic sanctions since May 1968 for its racial discrimination policy, agreement was reached in November 1971 between British Foreign Secretary Douglas-Home and Southern Rhodesia Prime Minister Ian Smith on plans to solve the problem. To study the will of the people of Southern Rhodesia under the agreement, a British survey committee arrived in Salisbury in January 1972. A resistance movement by local people developed into riots in various parts of the country on that occasion. Since people were victimized by oppression by the Government, the U.N. Security Council meeting in Addis Ababa debated the Southern Rhodesian problem on a priority basis and strongly called for a shift in Britain's policy on the issue. However, the proposal on the Southern Rhodesia issue failed as Britain vetoed the resolution which also called for an immediate withdrawal of its survey committee.
In Portuguese Angola, Mozambique and Guinea, liberation movements by African guerrillas still continued, and various African countries strongly demanded a suspension of arms aid to Portugal and a severence of economic and trade relations with Portugal.