1.Population and vital statistics
In 1996, Japan had a population of approximately 125.86 million, of which 64.18 million were women. Women outnumbered men by 2.49 million, and accounted for 51.0 percent of the total population.
In Japan, it is estimated that an extraordinarily aged society, in which 1 out of 3 Japanese people will be over 65 years old, is to come about by the mid-21st century due to an extension of the average life expectancy and also with the continuation of the trend for families with fewer children. Particularly, women's ratio in the population aged 65 and above was 58.7 percent in 1996, and this percentage is projected to undergo drastic increase towards the 21st century. The average life expectancy as of 1996 was 83.59 years for women and 77.01 years for men, and both women's and men's life expectancies are among the highest in the world. The number of live births in 1996 was approximately 1,207,000 with the birth rate of 9.7 (per 1,000 persons), and both the annual number of live births and the crude birth rate rose from the previous year in terms of the number and ratio as well. Accordingly, the total fertility rate in 1996 (the number of children that would be born to each woman in her lifetime in accordance with the fertility rate of a given period: the sum of the age-specific fertility rates for women aged 15 to 49) was 1.43 falling short of the value of 2.08 that is needed to maintain the present population level through the future. As referred thereto in the previous report, the fall in the birth rate has been brought about by the increasing of women's late-marriage-trend and the rise in the lifetime-unmarried rate. The increase in the feeling of burden in child rearing and the feeling of burden in managing the compatibility with work particularly due to the development of women's advanced role in society and the change in the sense of values toward marriage among both men and women are also pointed out as factors leading to this trend.
In 1996, there were 795,080 marriages with the marriage rate of 6.4 (number of marriages per 1,000 persons), and both the marriage number and marriage rate were equivalent to the ones in the previous year (791,888 marriages with the rate of 6.4 in 1995). The mean age for the first marriage was 26.4 years for women and 28.5 years for men, both of which indicated constant increases.
As for divorce, in 1996, there were 207,000 divorces with the divorce rate of 1.66 (number of divorces per 1,000 persons), and both the number and rate of divorce had increased. The divorce rate in every generation has been rising, and rapid increase in the divorce rate of people especially in their twenties. As for household size, the average number of persons per household is on a downward trend (It turned out to be 2.82 in 1995). Household patterns according to the relations among household members showed that in 1995, 74.1 percent were family households that consisted of a head of the household and his/her relatives, and 25.6 percent were single households; 29.1 percent had a household member aged 65 or above, and the number of such households are consistently increasing.
The maternal mortality rate in 1996 was 6.0 per 100,000 births, indicating a tendency to decrease.
In 1996, there were approximately 3.2 million children/persons with disabilities, of which 1.3 million women and 1.5 million men were under special care at home. The number of mentally handicapped persons in 1995 was approximately 0.41 million, of which 0.12 million were women and 0.17 million were men under special care at home.
2.Education
In 1997, the advancement rate in high schools was 97.0 percent for girls (94.8 percent for boys), which has been higher than boys' since 1969. The percentage of girls who advance to universities and junior colleges is also increasing annually. In 1997, the rate was 48.9 percent for girls and 45.8 percent for boys, and the girls' rate has been higher than boys' rate since 1989. As for the university advancement rate, in 1997, it was 26.0 percent for girls and 43.4 percent for boys. Although, a gap still exists, it is narrowing compared to the gap in 1992 (17.3 percent for girls and 35.2 percent for boys) as stated in the third periodic report.
The proportion of women taking university courses indicate that the courses where women occupy the majority in 1997 were: home economics (96.5 percent), arts (67.8 percent), humanities (67.4 percent), education (58.3 percent) and others. On the other hand, in those courses where women's enrollment rates had been low, there was an increase as compared to 1992 in social sciences, 23.9 percent (compared to 17.4 percent in 1992), agriculture, 38.6 percent (26.9 percent), science, 25.2 percent (19.8 percent) engineering, 9.0 percent (5.5 percent) and others.
In 1997, there were 8,163 women teaching staff in junior colleges (8,141 in 1992), which accounted for 41.1 percent of the entire teaching staff (38.5 percent in 1992), thus, the number as well as the percentage thereof showed an increasing trend in comparison with the figures in 1992. The number of the women teaching staff in universities was 16,564 (12,380 in 1992), which accounts for 11.7 percent of all university teaching staff (9.6 percent in 1992), thus, both the number as well as the percentage thereof increased in comparison with the 1992 figures.
The employment rate of junior college graduates in 1996 was 66.5 percent for women and 56.1 percent for men, thus, the women's rate was higher than the men's rate. As for the employment rate of university graduates, the men's rate slightly exceeded the women's rate with 67.1 percent for men and 63.5 percent for women. Among graduates, except those who go on to post-graduate courses, the percentage of those who find a job decreased for both men and women after reaching a peak in 1991. As for junior college graduates, the employment rate was 70.5 percent for women and 67.2 percent for men, and in the case of university graduates, 68.3 percent for women and 76.7 percent for men .
Women's enrollment rate in the field of education, especially in the field of higher education, has been on a constant rise since the presentation of the third periodic report as stated above. As for the major field of study, women's enrollment rate in the courses where women's rate used to be low has also been increasing.
In addition, with regard to the educational status of men and women, 62.3 percent of women and 69.1 percent of men consider that the status of men and women are equal in the teaching profession according to a "public opinion survey on gender equality" (carried out by the Prime Minister's Office in July 1995). It is shown that 19.2 percent of women and 32.3 percent of men consider men and women to be equal in the workplace, and 31.5 percent of women and 49.0 percent of men regard themselves as equal in family life. Therefore, educational institutes are places in which one can especially feel a sense of equality.
Although a gap still exists between men and women generally in the field of education, this gap is, nevertheless, gradually narrowing.
3.Employment
The women workforce in 1997 (the sum of the employed and the unemployed) was 27.6 million, indicating an increasing trend, and the composition ratio of women in the total workforce was 40.7 percent. In 1997, the 26.65 million of the women workforce were employed, and 0.95 million were unemployed resulting in an unemployment rate of 3.4 percent (the unemployment rate for the men workforce was 3.4 percent as well).
In addition, the women labour force participation rate rose for the first time in three years up to 50.4 percent, while the men labour force participation rate stood at 77.7 percent (the same rate as the previous year). Women labour force participation rates by age groups formed an M-shaped curve, with the rates for women aged 20 - 24 (73.4 percent) and 45 - 49 (72.2 percent) at the peaks and the rate for women aged 30 - 34 (56.2 percent) at the bottom. The labour force participation rate in every age group had risen shifting the overall M-shaped curve upward except for the fall in the 20 - 24 age group due to the rising enrollment rate for advanced education in comparison with that of 10 years ago (1987). It should be noted that an upward trend thereof in the middle- and old aged- groups of 50 - 54 and 55 - 59 has been growing, besides a substantial rise in the 25 - 29 age group.
Women labour force participation rates by marital status were 61.2 percent for the unmarried group, 51.3 percent for the married group and 31.7 percent for the divorced and/or the widowed group.
The composition of the women workforce by working status was 21.27 million for employees (79.8 percent of the total women workforce), 3.08 million for family workers (11.6 percent likewise), and 2.23 million for self-employed (8.4 percent likewise). While a downward trend in the number of self-employed and family workers' continues, employees keep on increasing, thus, the percentage of employees in the total workforce has been rising year by year.
The percentage of women employees in the total number of employees has been also increasing year after year, and it has reached 39.5 percent in 1997.
The distribution of the women workforce by industry in 1997 was found to comprise 7.37 million (34.6 percent of the women workforce) in the service industry as the largest component hereof, 5.86 million (27.6 percent) in the wholesale/retail business, and restaurants as the second largest component, and 4.51 million (21.2 percent) in manufacturing. And women working in these three industries accounted for 83.4 percent of the women employees. Here is an upward trend of the women workforce in the service industry (where the ratio of women employees is traditionally high) that has been growing prominently, and the presence of women worker has increased even in the wholesale/retail business, and restaurants. On the other hand, the workforce decreased for five consecutive years in the manufacturing industry, and also for two consecutive years in the finance and insurance industry.
The number of women employees by occupation in 1997 was comprised of 7.25 million for clerical workers (34.1 percent of the total women employees), 3.71 million for skilled and other workers engaged in the two major occupation: manufacturing and construction (17.4 percent). Also, the number of professional and technical workers, which stood at 3.26 million (15.3 percent) has increased.
Women's ratios by occupation indicate that the increase of the women's ratio in clerical work is the highest in comparison with the figure in 1987 (10 years ago), showing that women form the majority in clerical work (59.7 percent) and security work/services (53.9 percent), then, professional/technical work (45.2 percent) and labour work (43.1 percent) come thereafter. The percentage of women in managerial work rose, though marginally, from 7.9 percent in 1992 to 9.5 percent in 1997.
In addition, the average length of continuous work of women in 1997 was 8.4 years. Although this is shorter than that of men (13.3 years), it has gone up by 1.0 year compared with 7.4 years in 1992. The composition ratio of women employees aged 35 and above reached 60.1 percent in 1997, reflecting an increase in the number of those reaching the middle and latter stage of their lives. The percentage of married women among women employees has been also increasing and it reached 67.0 percent in 1997.
As for wages, scheduled salaries for women employees were 63.1 percent of their men counterparts, (if part-time workers are not included), in June 1997. This gap between the wages of men and women workers is caused by such miscellaneous factors as length of service, academic background, field of employment, rank at work, working hours and others. If one looks at the wages of ordinary workers (workers who are employed upon graduating from an educational institution and continue to work under the same employer) under the same conditions in terms of length of service, age and academic background, it was found that, among university graduates, women workers aged 20 - 24 make up to 95.1 in comparison with 100 for men workers, and the women workers aged 45-49 where the gap grows widest make up to 81.8 compared to 100 for their men counterparts in 1997.
As for working hours, a women full-time worker's average monthly working hours in the workplace with 30 workers and above in 1997 was 142.9 hours (comprising of 137.0 hours of scheduled working hours and 5.9 hours of overtime). On the other hand, men full-time worker's average monthly working hours per person at the workplace with 30 workers and above was 166.8 hours comprising of 150.7 hours of scheduled working hours and 16.1 hours of overtime work.
The number of women trade union members was 3.46 million in 1997, indicating a marginal decrease from 3.52 million in 1992. Besides, the percentage of women in the total number of trade union members increased marginally from 28.2 percent in 1992 to 28.4 percent.
The number of part-time workers has increased drastically in recent years, and the number of employees whose working hours are less than 35 hours per week (non-agriculture and forestry workers) stood at 11.14 million in 1997. The percentage of women therein was 67.0 percent, and part-time employees' ratio in the total women employees was 35.9 percent. The working situation of part-time workers shows the process of diversification in the field and type of work, as well as the attitude towards work.
4.Women engaged in agriculture, forestry and fisheries
In 1995, 2.86 million women were engaged in agriculture, forestry and fisheries, slightly exceeding the number of men by 2.04 million. As for agriculture, women accounted for 56.7 percent of the total number of persons engaged in this industry with 2.227 million in 1997. With regard to payment for work, 26.7 percent of women engaged in agriculture did not receive remuneration or wages in 1996. The situation as for the participation of women in social activities and decision-making in the local primary industries of agriculture, forestry and fisheries has gradually been improving in recent years, though still at a low level.
5.Results of the public opinion survey on gender equality
According to the public opinion survey on gender equality conducted by the Government in July 1995, to the question asking for the sense of equality for the status of women and men in various fields of the society, it is only in the field of education that more than the majority of both women and men answered that they consider each other as equal (62.3 percent of women, 69.1 percent of men). In other fields, both women and men consider that men are treated better, especially in the realm of society in general (79.8 percent of women, 70.0 percent of men), social norm, custom and tradition (78.7 percent of women, 74.9 percent of men), and political field (71.2 percent of women, 61.6 percent of men). (See Statistical Annex 38)
The Japanese Government conducted a public opinion survey on a gender equality society in September 1997. According to the results of the opinion survey, an absolute majority of the people embrace the idea that it is desirable for women to prioritize family life over work or to keep them equally compatible (45.0 percent for giving priority to family life, 41.2 percent for the compatibility of family life with work), and the majority of them still agree with the idea that "Women should be responsible for household work and child-rearing, though it is good for them to have jobs." (86.4 percent agree thereto), while the majority of them embraces the idea that it is desirable for men to prioritize work to family life (62.4 percent for priority to be given to work). Analyzing by gender, women surpassed men in answering that women should prioritize family life over work or to keep them equally compatible, representing the fact that women themselves feel responsible for managing the family.
On the other hand, in comparison with the results of the public opinion survey on gender equality conducted in November 1992, both men and women answering "agree" to the idea that "Women should focus more on their families, i.e. their husband and children rather than on themselves, once married," decreased. Besides, while answering "agree" to "In general, it would be disadvantageous for a woman to be divorced in today's society," increased, people who responded affirmatively to the idea that "It is better to be divorced, if you are not satisfied with your partner," increased. Thus, there is a drastic and flexible change when it comes to view the family. (See Statistical Annex 39 1), 2), 3))
6.Activities of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), etc.
| (1) | Liaison Group for the Implementation of the Resolutions from the International Women's Year Conference of Japan |
| Since the International Women's Year in 1975, women's organizations have been vigorously putting forth activities in various fields. Moreover, with the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 many women's organizations and groups were born throughout Japan and are carrying out grass-roots activities nation-wide. | |
| Encouraged by the International Women's Year, 41 organizations took the opportunity to form a liaison organization, the first women's organization on a nation-wide scale. In November 1975, "The International Women's Year Conference of Japan" was held, and resolutions on the formulation of the National Action Plan and other policies related to women were adopted. After that, those organizations formed the "Liaison Group for the Implementation of the Resolutions from the International Women's Year Conference of Japan" (hereinafter referred to as "International Women's Year Liaison Group"), and the group has been active towards the advancement of the status of women. The International Women's Year Liaison Group is composed of 51 organizations as of April 1998. | |
| The International Women's Year Liaison Group held the "Toward the 21st Century - Convention of Japanese Women NGOs" in November 1995 after the Forth World Conference on Women in Beijing, and they adopted the NGO Goals for Action comprising 6 areas. In April 1996, the assembly commemorating the 50th anniversary of women's suffrage was held in collaboration with the "Liaison Committee for the Parliamentary Activities of 7 Women's Organizations" calling for the promotion of women's increased participation in politics. | |
| Furthermore, in October 1997, representatives of the Liaison Group submitted a request to the Chief Cabinet Secretary (Minister for gender equality) to ensure participation of women in various field of the society, to enhance the organization and function of the Prime Minister's Office in charge of promoting women's policy measures comprehensively, as well as to draw the basic legal framework to promote gender equality. | |
| (2) | Other NGO activities |
| Apart from the above-mentioned NGO's activities, there are many women's organizations and groups including Japanese Association of International Women's Rights that are doing studies on the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and other activities in various parts of Japan. And a new organization, Beijing JAC, was formed in the wake of the participation in the Beijing conference, suggesting a further deepening of interest in the advancement of women among the Japanese NGOs and grass-roots people. In recent years, network-type of organizations on women's issue have been created as the new form of activities, while there is a trend for public and private liaison conference type of organizations on women's issue to be established at prefectural and municipal levels. Furthermore, various opinions and requests have been presented to the Government and local public organizations with regard to measures and activities to create a gender-equal society in line with the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. |
7.National Machinery for the Promotion of Gender Equality
The headquarters for the Promotion of Gender Equality that is to handle the comprehensive promotion of a wide variety of measures concerned, and the Council for Gender Equality that is the advisory body to the Prime Minister and other Ministers concerned are playing a key role towards the realization of a gender-equal society. In addition to these, the Liaison Conference for the Promotion of Gender Equality which functions as a liaison with various groups and fields of the civil society nation-wide is promoting the creation of a gender-equal society as a national movement. The Cabinet Secretariat, Prime Minister's Office (Office for Gender Equality) and other related administrative organizations in close cooperation with each other are extending secretariat support to the Headquarters, the Council and the Liaison Conference.
National Machinery for the Promotion of Gender Equality is as follows:
As for the transition of the machinery after the consideration of the third periodic report, see Part Two 2.
8.National Plan of Action
In July 1996, The Council for Gender Equality, which was formed by "Cabinet Order for The Council for Gender Equality" (June 24, 1994 Cabinet Order, No. 190), submitted the "Vision for Gender Equality" to the Prime Minister, taking into consideration the various views and opinions of society as well as the outcome of the Fourth World Conference on Women. The Vision presented the direction and process for the realization of a gender-equal society contemplated by around 2010, taking into account the possible economic and social changes in Japan.
Therefore, upon revision of the "New National Plan of Action towards the Year 2000" (prepared in 1987), which appeared in the third periodic report, the policy indicated in the Vision as well as the outcome and the issue of the First Revision of the New National Plan of Action (1991) were taken into consideration in order to formulate an entirely new National Plan of Action. In December 1996, a National Plan of Action entitled the "Plan for Gender Equality 2000 - the National Plan of Action for the Promotion of a Gender-Equal Society by the Year 2000" was formulated, duly responding to the Beijing Platform for Action (Paragraph 297).
Upon formulation of the plan, attempts were made to take into consideration the viewpoints of various groups and fields of society, referring to 1,100 different opinions and requests presented from various groups and individuals. The plan is constituted with the following 4 basic targets; 1) Building social systems that promote gender equality, 2) Achieving gender equality in the workplace, family, and community, 3) Creating a society where human rights of women are promoted and protected, 4) Contribution to the "Equality, Development and Peace" of the global community, and 11 priority objectives. This time, as new issues such as "Reviewing social systems and practices and reforming awareness from the perspective of gender equality", "Eliminating all forms of violence against women," "Respect for human rights of women in the media," "Supporting lifelong health for women" were adopted as new priority objectives. The Japanese Government is now striving to promote various measures for the creation of a gender equal society in accordance with this plan.
9.Examples of activities by local public organizations
Active administrations related to gender equality have been proceeding in local public organizations as well. Action plans to promote measures for gender equality have been formulated in all 47 prefectures and 12 ordinance-designated cities by establishing departments and/or divisions (offices) for planning and coordination of the measures for gender equality (as of April 1997). The formulation ratio of the action plan conducted by municipal organizations (excluding the ordinance-designated cities) is 382 out of 3,243 municipal organizations (11.8 percent).
10.Major amendments to laws and ordinances
A summary of the major amendments to laws and ordinances carried out during the period relevant to the report is shown as below, and the details will be provided under each particular article in Part Two.
| (1) | Law concerning partial amendments to the Child Allowance Law (promulgated on March 31, 1994) |
| This is intended for the collection of donations from business proprietors to be appropriated for the cost newly required for a child nurture project in addition to donations from business proprietors to be appropriated for part of the cost required for cash provision of the child allowance so as to secure the fund required for the expansion of various supporting services for child-rearing, and was put into force on April 1, 1994. | |
| (See Part Two 10. Article 11. 2 (c) ) | |
| (2) | Law concerning Working Hours and Leave etc. for National Public Employees in the Regular Service (promulgated on June 15, 1994) |
| The law concerning Working Hours and Leave etc. for National Public Employees in the Regular Service intended for specifying the principle of the 40-hour work-week system and enactment of a family care system, etc. was put into effect in September 1994. | |
| (3) | Cabinet order on the Council for Gender Equality (promulgated and enforced on June 24, 1994) |
| Upon the Prime Minister's request for advice, the Council for Gender Equality was mandated to present to the Prime Minister views on the formation of a gender-equal society following investigation and deliberation on the fundamental and comprehensive aspects for the formation. The Council was established with a limited term until March 31, 1997. | |
| (See Part Two 2. Article 3 ) | |
| (4) | Cabinet order concerning partial amendment to the ordinance on organization of the Prime Minister's Office (promulgated and enforced on June 24, 1994) |
| Setting up of the Office for Gender Equality in the Cabinet Secretariat, the duties thereof, and establishment of the Council for Gender Equality in the Prime Minister's Office was stipulated. | |
| (See Part Two 2. Article 3 ) | |
| (5) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Employment Insurance Law, etc. (promulgated on June 29, 1994) |
| The provision of child care leave benefits was stipulated to secure the continuation of employment for those employees who take child care leave as the child care leave system became compulsory. This law was enforced on April 1, 1995. | |
| (6) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Child Care Leave Law (promulgated on June 9, 1995) |
| This law intended to incorporate into the existing "Child Care Leave Law" new elements which are measures for the family care leave system or family care such as the reduction of working hours, as well as measures on the support extended by the Government, etc. to workers engaged in the child care or family care. This has been enforced, with the exception of part of the law, since October 1, 1995. (All of the law will be in effect as of April 1, 1999.) | |
| (See Part Two 10. Article 11. 2 (c) ) | |
| (7) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Foreign Service Personnel Law (promulgated on May 9, 1996) |
| The amendment was provided to stipulate the disqualification criteria for the foreign service officials. | |
| (See Part Two 8. Article 9 ) | |
| (8) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Eugenic Protection Law (promulgated on June 26, 1996) |
| In view of discriminatory expressions against persons with disabilities in some sections of the Law based on the eugenic idea that stands for the prevention of dysgenic posterity births, stipulations based on the eugenic idea were deleted from the provisions on abortion, etc., and the Law was converted into the Maternal Protection Law, enforced on September 26, 1996. | |
| (See Part Two 11. Article 12 ) | |
| (9) | Law concerning establishment of the Council for Gender Equality (promulgated on March 26, 1997) |
| The Council for Gender Equality was established in the Prime Minister's Office as an organization to investigate and deliberate the fundamental and comprehensive policy and important subjects with regard to promoting the formation of a gender-equal society, in compliance with the request for advice by the Prime Minister or Ministers concerned so as to contribute to promote the formation of a gender-equal society. This law was enforced on April 1, 1997. | |
| (See Part Two 2. Article 3 ) | |
| (10) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Child Welfare Law (promulgated on June 11, 1997) |
| In view of the increasing trend of families with fewer children, a generalized trend of dual-income families with a working husband and wife, as well as changes in the environment surrounding children and families such as lower functioning of child-rearing in the family and the community, restructuring of the child and family welfare system have been made. The amendment was made to support the sound nurturing and independence of children who are responsible for the next generation and to facilitate a better environment in which to rear children. This law was enforced on April 1, 1998. | |
| (See Part Two 10. Article 11. 2 (c) ) | |
| (11) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Equal Employment Opportunity Law, etc. (promulgated on June 18, 1997) |
| Reinforcement of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law, deregulation on overtime work, holiday work and late-night work by women, fulfillment of measures for the protection of mothers, etc. are incorporated therein, and this law is to be enforced on April 1, 1999 (Part of the Law was enforced). | |
| (See Part Two 10. Article 11. (a) -(c), (f)) | |
| (12) | Law concerning partial amendment to the Employment Insurance Law, etc. (promulgated on March 31, 1998) |
| The provision of family care leave benefits was stipulated to secure the continuation of employment for those employees who take family care leave as the family care leave system will become compulsory. This law is to be enforced on April 1, 1999. | |
| (13) | Law concerning regulation, rationalization of work, etc. of entertainment-related establishments, etc. (promulgated on May 8, 1998) |
| This law includes provisions to prevent prostitution, regulation on the sex industry when prostitution is conducted off the premises, etc. This law will be enforced within one year (part of it will be within six months) after it is promulgated, with the date to be decided by government ordinance. | |
| (See Part Two 1. Article 2. (a), 5.Article 6 ) |